551 

"teach   agr: 


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At  Los  Angeles 
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This  book  is  DUB  on  the  last  date  (.tamped  below 


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HOW  TO   TEACH   AGRICULTURE 


LippiNCOTT's  FARM  MANUALS 

Edited  by  K.  C.  DAVIS,  Ph.D..  Knapp  School  of  Country  Life,  Nashville,  Tenn. 
Every  effort  is  made  to  keep  these  standard  texts  up-to-date,  and 
new  editions  are  published  and  revisions  made  whenever  necessary. 

COOPERATIVE  MARKETING  OF  FARM  PRODUCTS 
By  O.  B.  JESNESS 

PRODUCTIVE  SWINE  HUSBANDRY 

By  GEORGE  E.  DAY.  B.S.A.    Third  Edition.  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

By  HARRY  R.  LEWIS.  M.Agr.    Fourth  Edition.  Revised  and  Enlarged 

PRODUCTIVE  HORSE  HUSBANDRY 

By  CARL  W.  GAY.  D.V.M..  B.S.A.    Third  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  ORCHARDING 

By  FRED  C.  SEARS,  M.S.    Second  Edition.  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  VEGETABLE  GROWING 

By  JOHN  W.  LLOYD,  M.S. A.    Third  Edition  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

By  F.  W.  WOLL.  Ph.D..  Third  Edition.  Revised 

COMMON  DISEASES  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

By  R.  A.  CRAIG.  D.V.M..  Third  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  FARM  CROPS 

By  E.  G.  MONTGOMERY.  M.A.    Third  Edition.  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  BEE  KEEPING 

By  FRANK  C.  PELLETT.    Second  Edition.  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  DAIRYING 

By  R.  M.  WASHBURN,  M.S.A.    Second  Edition.  Revised 

INJURIOUS  INSECTS  AND  USEFUL  BIRDS 

By  F.  L.  WASHBURN,  M.A. 

PRODUCTIVE  SHEEP  HUSBANDRY 
By  WALTER  C.  COFFEY,  M.A. 

PRODUCTIVE  SMALL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

By  FRED  C.  SEARS.  M.S. 

PRODUCTIVE  SOILS 

By  WILBERT  W.  WEIR,  M.S. 

FARM  ECONOMICS 

By  FRANK  APP 

LIPPINCOTT'S  COLLEGE  TEXTS 

THE  POTATO 

By  WILLIAM  STUART 

SOIL  PHYSICS  AND  MANAGEMENT 

By  J.  G.   MOSIER,  B.S.,  A.  F.  GUSTAFSON.  M.S. 

AGRICULTURAL  ECONOMICS 

By  JAMES  E.  BOYLE,  Ph.D.    Second  Edition,  Revised 

FARM  LIFE  TEXT  SERIES 

APPLIED  ECONOMIC  BOTANY 

By  MELVILLE  T.  COOK.  Ph.D.     Second  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  PLANT  HUSBANDRY 

By  KARY  C.  DAVIS.    Second  Edition,  Revised 

HORTICULTURE  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

By  KARY  C.  DAVIS.    Second  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  SOILS  (Abridged  Edition) 
By  WILBERT  W.  WEIR,  M.S. 

VOCATIONAL  CHEMISTRY 

By  J.  J.  WILLAMAN 

LABORATORY  MANUALS  AND  NOTEBOOKS 

ON   THE   FOLLOWING  SUBJECTS 

SOILS,  By  J.  F.  EASTMAN  and  K.  C.  DAVIS     POULTRY,  By  H.  R.  LEWIS 

DAIRYING,  By  E.  L.  ANTHONY         FEEDING,  By  F.  W.  WOLL 

FARM  CROPS,  By  F.  W.  LATHROP 


ss 


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HOW  TO  TEACH 
AGRICULTURE 

A  BOOK  OF  METHODS  IN  THIS  SUBJECT 

BY 
ASHLEY  V.  STORM,  PH.D. 

PROFESSOR  AND   CHIEF   OF  THE   DIVISION    OF  AGRICULTURAL    EDUCA- 
TION AND  DIRECTOR  OF  SHORT  COURSES,  UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA 

AND 

KARY  C.  DAVIS,  PH.D. 

KNAPP  SCHOOL  OF   COUNTRY   LIFE,    GEORGE    PEABODY  COLLEGE    FOR 
TEACHERS;  AUTHOR  OF  PRODUCTIVE  FARMING,  HORTICULTURE.  ETC. 

223  ILLUSTRATIONS 


"  If  vain  our  toil. 
We  ought  to  blame  the  culture,  not  the  soil." 

POPE — Essay  on  Man 


PHILADELPHIA  &  LONDON 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,    1921,    BY   J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 


Elcclrolyped  and  Prtnted  by  J.  B.  Lipptncolt  Company 
At  the  Washington  Square  Press,  Philadelphia,  U.  S.A. 


PREFACE 

THE  Introduction  gives  the  reasons  of  the  authors  for  preparing 
this  book. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  book  will  be  of  real  help  to  all  those  who  are 
actually  teaching  as  well  as  to  those  planning  to  do  so  and  to  those 
responsible  for  the  supervision  or  administration  of  the  teaching  of 
agriculture.  From  beginning  to  end,  it  is  planned  as  a  teachers' 
book.  It  does  not  contain  any  treatment  of  agricultural  subject 
matter  or  the  facts  of  pure  agriculture.  It  is  intended  for  use  in 
teacher  training  courses  in  colleges  and  normal  schools,  and  any 
high  schools  offering  such  courses.  It  is  also  intended  for  every 
teacher  who  wishes  to  teach  agriculture.  Teachers '  reading  circles 
will  find  the  book  suited  to  their  needs,  if  they  wish  to  study  the 

N     teaching  of  this  subject. 

^           The  book  is  free  from  long  lists  of  subjects  quoted  from  the 

, s  ^  tables  of  contents  of  books  of  agriculture.    Neither  does  it  contain 

n  such  lists  taken  from  the  outlines  so  freely  published  by  many 

state  boards  and  departments  of  education.    For  such  tables  and 

lists,  the  user  of  this  book  is  referred  to  the  numerous  texts  on 

the  subject  matter  of  agriculture  and  the  various  state  reports 

*> ,    and  official  bulletins. 

^  1 

Acknowledgments.— The  illustrations  have  been  furnished 
largely  by  teachers  of  vocational  agriculture  in  the  various  states. 
Under  the  picture,  usually,  credit  is  given  in  each  case,  except 
those  supplied  by  the  authors. 

To  our  own  students,  who  have  actively  cooperated  in  sup- 

^  plying  suggestions,  materials,  and  the  necessary  inspiration  for  this 

W   book,  we  are  extremely  grateful.    To  Mrs.  Fanny  Waugh  Davis 

and  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Hayler  Storm  the  authors  join  in  expressing 

appreciation  for  valuable  assistance  in  preparing  the  manuscript 

and  reading  proofs. 

Several  experts  in  special  lines  have  read,  criticized,  and  other- 
wise materially  aided  us  in  preparing  certain  chapters.  Credit  is  due 
Frederick  L.  Griffin,  of  the  University  of  California,  for  many  valu- 
able suggestions,  and  to  John  V.  Ankeney,  of  the  University  of 
Minnesota,  for  aiding  with  the  chapter  on  Charts,  Slides,  and  Films; 
to  Andrew  Boss,  of  the  University  of  Minnesota,  for  examining 


vi  PREFACE 

the  manuscript  of  the  chapter  on  How  to  Teach  Farm  Manage- 
ment; to  C.  H.  Lane,  chief,  Agricultural  Education  Service  of 
the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  for  examining  and 
criticizing  the  proofs. 

Those  who  use  the  hook  are  urged  to  write  to  one  of  the  authors 
and  give  criticisms  and  suggestions  for  the  further  improvement 
of  it. 

A.  V.  STORM 
KARY  C.  DAVIS 
JANUARY,  1921. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  INTRODUCTION 1 

II.  How  TO  ORGANIZE  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 7 

III.  How  TO  MANAGE  THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 26 

IV.  METHODS  IN  THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 36 

V.  How  TO  TEACH  AGRONOMY 74 

VI.  How  TO  TEACH  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 109 

VII.  How  TO  TEACH  DAIRYING 134 

VIII.  How  TO  TEACH  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 150 

IX.  How  TO  TEACH  HORTICULTURE 169 

X.  How  TO  TEACH   FARM   MECHANICS,   ENGINEERING   AND  SHOP 

WORK 205 

XI.  How  TO  TEACH  FARM  MANAGEMENT 228 

XII.  How  TO  TEACH  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS.   248 

XIII.  How  TO  CONDUCT  HOME  PROJECTS 270 

XIV.  How  TO  CONDUCT  A  LAND  LABORATORY 301 

XV.  How  TO  EQUIP  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 317 

XVI.  How  TO  TEACH  THROUGH  CHARTS,  SLIDES  AND  FILMS 332 

XVII.  How  TO  ORGANIZE  AN  AGRICULTURAL  LIBRARY 364 

XVIII.  How  TO  CONDUCT  COMMUNITY  WORK 376 

APPENDIX 415 

INDEX  .  .  421 


vu 


HOW  TO  TEACH 
AGRICULTURE 


INTRODUCTION 

THE  present  forward  movement  in  improving  the  methods  of 
teaching  agriculture  has  doubtless  impressed  itself  upon  the  minds 
of  the  older  teachers  more  than  upon  those  who  have  recently 
entered  this  field  of  teaching.  Many  changes  have  been  made  in 
the  methods  of  teaching  agriculture  in  recent  years,  but  the  most 
rapid  introduction  of  the  new  changes  has  been  made  since  the 
passage  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act,  which  took  effect  July  1,  1917. 
The  most  noted  change  made  in  the  methods  of  teaching  which 
took  place  about  this  time  was  the  use  of  home  project  work.  (See 
Chapter  XIII.)  A  few  states  had,  prior  to  this,  been  conducting 
the  agricultural  high  school  work  on  the  home  project  basis.  A 
number  of  isolated  schools  in  other  states  had  long  been  trying  this 
method.  It  remained,  however,  for  the  passage  of  the  Smith-Hughes 
Act  of  Congress  to  cause  the  widespread  introduction  of  the  home 
project  method  of  teaching  agriculture. 

The  Smith-Hughes  Act. — This  law  makes  provision  for  Federal 
aid  of  public  schools  teaching  vocational  agriculture  to  students 
above  fourteen  years  of  age.  State  Boards  were  to  be  designated 
by  each  state  for  governing  schools  availing  themselves  of  the 
benefits  of  this  Act.  In  most  states  these  boards  have  issued  printed 
courses  of  study.  These  pamphlets,  which  may  be  secured  by  all 
teachers  of  agriculture,  usually  contain  in  detail  the  conditions  for 
the  establishment  of  vocational  departments  or  schools  and  the 
advantages  of  so  doing. 

The  State  Boards  appoint  directors  of  vocational  education  and 
supervisors  of  the  training  in  vocational  agriculture.  They  desig- 
nate what  institutions  shall  train  teachers  for  the  different  lines  of 
vocational  education.  Printed  forms  are  issued  under  the  authority 
of  the  State  Boards  and  may  be  obtained  by  teachers  desiring  them. 
These  forms  include  all  or  nearly  all  that  are  needed  for  complying 
with  the  plans  for  organization  and  administration  laid  down  by  the 
State  Board  and  by  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education. 

1 


2  INTRODUCTION 

Need  for  Books  on  Methods  of  Teaching. — The  authors  of 
the  present  volume  believe  that  there  is  a  growing  need  for  more 
literature  on  the  subject  of  methods  of  teaching  agriculture.  The 
number  of  schools  that  have  introduced  vocational  agriculture 
since  the  passage  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act  have,  in  most  states, 
been  limited  to  the  number  of  teachers  sufficiently  qualified  to 
instruct  in  the  subject.  Departments  for  the  training  of  agricul- 
ture teachers  have  been  established  in  all  the  states.  Usually 
these  have  been  in  state  colleges  of  agriculture.  These  training 
departments  found  it  impossible  at  first  to  supply  enough  teachers 
for  the  schools  desiring  to  introduce  vocational  agriculture. 

There  have  been  many  books  giving  methods  of  teaching  nearly 
all  other  school  subjects,  but  few  that  have  really  given  very  defi- 
nite suggestions  on  the  subjects  in  agriculture.  If  there  be  justi- 
fication for  so  many  books  on  methods  of  teaching  geography, 
mathematics,  language  and  other  school  and  college  subjects,  there 
certainly  is  some  justification  for  issuing  at  least  a  few  books 
which  deal  with  real  methods  in  teaching  agriculture. 

Little  Attention  to  Methods  in  the  Past. — All  who  have 
made  a  study  of  the  past  and  present  methods  of  teaching 
agriculture  readily  realize  that  too  little  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  specific  methods  of  teaching  the  different  branches 
of  the  subject.  It  was  early  claimed  by  many  that  the  need  was 
not  for  instructors  who  knew  how  to  teach,  but  for  instructors  who 
knew  subject  matter  only.  A  knowledge  of  subject  matter  has  been 
allowed  to  take  the  place  of  methods  of  presenting  the  subject 
to  students. 

Breadth  of  the  Field  of  the  Agriculture  Teacher. — The 
teacher  of  agriculture  is  an  organizer,  an  administrator,  a 
manager,  a  teacher,  and  a  community  leader.  It  is  the  pur- 
pose of  this  book  to  be  to  him  "guide,  counsellor,  and  friend"  as 
he  endeavors  to  perform  his  duties  in  these  several  capacities. 
It  is  an  attempt  to  put  into  his  hands,  in  one  volume,  such  guiding 
principles  and  such  specific  instructions  for  his  actual  tasks  as  will 
not  only  lay  a  solid  foundation  for  correct  ideals  but  also  enable  him 
to  perform  his  daily  work  with  success. 

Meeting  His  Needs. — Sound  ideals  of  the  aims  of  educa- 
tion, a  clear  understanding  of  how  society  organizes  and  admin- 
isters education  and  an  appreciation  of  the  place  of  agriculture  in 
each  is  necessary  if  he  is  to  jMM-form  wisely  his  part  in  the  incor- 
poration of  his  chosen  subject,  agriculture,  into  our  system  of 


MEETING  HIS  NEEDS  3 

universal  education,  particularly  the  public  schools.    Chapter  II  en- 
deavors to  assist  in  attaining  these  ideals  and  this  understanding. 

While  in  conducting  the  daily  work  of  the  school  or  the  class  it 
is  impossible  wholly  to  separate  managing  from  teaching,  since  the 
two  frequently  occur  simultaneously,  it  has  seemed  best,  in  order  to 
concentrate  the  attention  properly  upon  each,  to  treat  them  in 
different  chapters.  Unless  a  school  or  class  is  well  managed  and 
governed,  good  teaching  cannot  be  done.  Good  managing  and  con- 
t  rolling  are  not  wholly  matters  of  native  ability,  even  though  natural 
gifts  may  make  them  easier  for  some  teachers  than  for  others,  but 
are  largely  the  result  of  careful  study  and  planning.  To  furnish  the 
opix)rtunity  for  this  study  and  to  aid  in  making  and  executing 
proper  plans,  Chapter  III  has  been  devoted  to  management  in 
general,  the  management  of  the  class,  and  government. 

When  an  attempt  is  made  to  condense  a  truth  into  an  epigram  it 
usually  becomes  a  half  truth.  "Teachers,  like  poets,  are  l)orn  and 
not  made, "  to  express  the  whole  truth  should  be.  Teachers  are  both 
born  and  made.  To  be  born  with  capabilities  which  make  easy  the 
attainment  of  skill  in  teaching  is  a  blessing  vouchsafed  to  persons 
in  varying  degrees ;  to  develop  to  the  greatest  possible  extent  all  of 
one's  aptitudes  for  teaching  is  an  opportunity  open  to  all.  To  make 
better  teachers,  so  far  as  that  can  be  done  through  the  acquisition 
of  better  methods,  is  the  purpose  of  Chapter  IV. 

The  teacher  ambitious  to  use  the  best  methods  has  three  dis- 
tinct handicaps.  First,  in  doing  anything,  because  of  the  strength 
of  the  tendency  to  imitate,  we  do  as  we  have  seen  done  and  not  as 
we  have  read  or  heard  that  we  should  do.  "As  the  old  cock  crows, 
the  voung  cock  learns."  The  tendency  of  young  teachers  is  to 
teach  as  they  were  taught  and  not  as  they  have  been  told  to  teach. 

The  second  is  that  teachers  of  agriculture,  particularly  those  in 
charge  of  special  departments  of  agriculture  in  secondary  and  ele- 
mentary schools,  were  taught  their  agriculture  in  colleges  and  many 
of  the  methods  of  teaching  used  therein  are  ill  adapted  to  use  in 
the  public  schools.  The  combination  of  these  two  conditions  places 
the  teacher  under  very  heavy  handicaps. 

The  third  relates  to  the  organization  of  subject  matter  he  is  to 
teach.  In  most  colleges  of  agriculture  the  subject  matter  is  taught 
in  highly  differentiated  units,  in  great  scientific  detail,  and  fre- 
quently, with  a  great  degree  of  isolation  from  related  units.  It 
should  not  be  so  taught  in  public  schools.  This  means  that  the 
teacher,  if  he  is  to  teach  in  the  public  schools,  is  under  the  necessity 


4  INTRODUCTION 

of  completely  reorganizing  his  subject  matter,  abandoning  the  organ- 
ization through  which  he  received  his  knowledge  of  agriculture, 
and  making  an  organization  of  his  own  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
his  pupils. 

Overcoming  Handicaps. — The  teacher  of  agriculture  who  hopes 
to  render  the  largest  service  to  his  pupils  must  overcome  these 
handicaps.  There  are  four  definite  means  by  which  he  can  accom- 
plish this.  He  can  watch  good  teachers  teach;  counsel  with  those 
who  are  judges  of  good  teaching  methods;  read  the  best  profes- 
sional literature  ujxm  the  subject;  and  make  a  careful  application 


Fio.  1. — Vocational  agriculture  ie  often  chosen  by  men  who  were  injured  in  the  World  \Var. 
These  take  rehabilitation  work  in  the  Junior  College  of  Agriculture,  Ontario,  California. 

(Chas.  J.  Booth.) 

to  his  own  work  of  what  he  has  learned  and  measure  the  results. 
As  an  essential  preliminary  to  the  successful  use  of  these  means  he 
must  first  realize  that  he  is  under  these  handicaps.  It  is  one  of 
the  purposes  of  this  book  to  assist  the  teacher  in  overcoming 
such  handicaps  as  he  may  possess. 

In  overcoming  the  first  he  must  test  all  methods  by  means  of 
which  he  learned,  by  applying  the  standards  of  pedagogical  sound- 
ness, discarding  such  as  are  unsound  in  their  pedagogy  or  not 
adapted  to  the  conditions  under  which  he  is  teaching.  He  should 
not  assume  that  a  method  is  sound  simply  because  it  was  used 
with  classes  in  which  he  was  a  student.  A  method  should  have 
some  more  substantial  reason  for  its  use  than  mere  custom.  As  a 


scientific  agriculturalist  ho  believes  in  testing  the  rule  of  thumb 
by  the  principles  of  science  before  adopting  a  mode  of  procedure. 
As  a  teacher  he  should  pursue  the  same  scientific  process  with  his 
methods  of  teaching.  If  he  does  he  will  endeavor  to  find  a  sound 
pedagogical  basis  for  his  methods  of  teaching  and  management 
and  not  be  satisfied  with  a  mere  blind  following  of  the  practices 
in  use  when  he  was  a  student.  He  will  doubtless  use  many  of  them 
but  it  will  be  because  they  are  sound  and  not  because  they  were 
used  when  he  was  taught. 

In  overcoming  the  second,  let  the  teacher  adapt  methods  to 
his  students.  A  clear  discrimination  between  methods  adapted  to 
college  students  and  those  adapted  to  the  particular  class  of  stu- 
dents he  may  be  teaching  at  the  time  will  enable  him  to  use  proper 
methods.  A  careful  and  conscientious  study  of  this  text  and  the 
references  contained  therein,  especially  Chapters  III  to  XI,  inclu- 
sive, should  be  of  much  assistance  in  overcoming  these  handicaps. 

In  reorganizing  his  subject  matter  he  will  find  help  in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  curriculum  in  Chapter  II  and  in  the  topics  relating  to 
content  in  each  of  the  Chapters  V  to  XII,  inclusive,  which  deal 
specifically  with  the  teaching  of  the  different  divisions  of  the  cur- 
riculum. To  supplement  the  matter  contained  in  these,  other 
chapters  have  been  devoted  to  the  use  of  land  in  the  teaching  of 
agriculture,  Chapter  XIV,  the  making  and  use  of  charts  and  slides, 
Chapter  XV,  and  the  special  agricultural  library,  Chapter  XVI. 
which  will  be  found  helpful  in  both  management  and  methods. 

Three  other  chapters,  XIII  on  how  to  deal  with  home  projects, 
XVII  on  how  to  conduct  community  work,  and  XVIII  on  how  to 
conduct  boys'  and  girls'  club  work,  are  intended  to  aid  the  teacher 
in  his  responsibilities  as  a  community  leader  though  the  home 
projects  constitute  a  part  of  his  school  work,  and  when  the  boys' 
and  girls'  club  work  becomes  fully  incorporated  as  a  regular  activity 
of  the  public  schools,  which  it  must  do  if  it  is  to  become  thorough 
and  permanent,  it  will  be  a  school  enterprise  conducted  partly  at 
the  school  and  partly  at  the  home,  as  are  the  projects. 

Use  of  the  Book. — This  book  is  intended  to  constitute  a  unit 
which  will  give  to  the  one  who  uses  it  a  preparation  fairly  well 
distributed  over  the  different  fields  of  activity  of  the  teacher  of 
agriculture.  It  may  be  studied  in  the  order  of  the  numbering  of 
the  chapters  though  that  is  not  at  all  necessary.  Each  chapter 
is  so  sufficiently  independent  that  any  order  may  be  followed  which 
seems  best  adapted  to  the  local  situation  and  any  chapter,  the  sub- 


6  INTRODUCTION 

ject  matter  of  which  is  not  needed  at  that  particular  time,  may  be 
omitted  without  detracting  from  the  value  of  the  others. 

Exercises  follow  each  chapter.  To  make  the  thoughts  clearer 
and  to  fix  them  more  permanently,  use  should  be  made  of  these 
exercises.  In  doing  so,  the  different  exercises  should  be  used  in 
connection  with  the  appropriate  topics  in  the  text  and  not  left  as 
something  to  be  studied  after  the  whole  text  of  the  chapter  or  of 
the  entire  book  is  finished.  Not  every  exercise  needs  to  be  taken 
by  every  pupil  nor  even  by  every  class.  The  exercises  should  be 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils  and  to  local  conditions.  If  these 
indicate  that  some  exercises  applying  to  a  given  topic  are  un- 
necessary, such  should  be  omitted.  If  there  is  need  for  more  of  a 
given  kind,  the  teacher  or  the  students  should  originate  them. 

The  references,  especially  those  at  the  foot  of  the  page,  should 
be  consulted  when  possible.  In  Chapter  IV,  citations  to  specific 
books  made  by  number  at  the  close  of  each  paragraph  make  such 
consultation  especially  easy  upon  the  subject  of  methods. 

For  Whom  Intended. — This  book  is  intended  for  teachers  in 
service  who  are  teaching  agriculture  in  any  kind  of  institution, 
whether  it  be  the  one-room  countiy  school,  the  consolidated  school, 
the  town  or  city  school,  the  high  school,  the  normal  school  or  any 
other  institution  in  which  agriculture  is  taught;  for  students  in 
universities,  colleges,  normal  schools,  and  other  institutions  who 
are  preparing  to  teach  agriculture;  for  city,  county,  and  district 
superintendents,  principals  and  supervisors  and  others  who  are 
responsible  for  the  supervision  of  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in 
schools  under  their  charge;  for  persons  engaged  in  extension  work, 
short  courses,  and  other  forms  of  non-curricularized  agricultural 
teaching  and  advising;  and  for  those  who  are  preparing  prospective 
agricultural  teachers  for  their  future  work. 

Result  of  Experience. — This  book  is  the  result  of  many  years 
of  experience  of  the  authors  in  teaching  in  the  public  schools  of 
both  country  and  city,  in  schools  and  colleges  of  agriculture,  in 
extension  and  community  work,  in  farmers'  institutes,  in  teachers' 
institutes,  and  especially  in  the  college  training  of  prospective 
teachers  of  agriculture.  A  careful  study  has  been  made  of  the 
needs  of  those  for  whom  it  is  intended  and  a  serious  effort  has  been 
put  forth  to  adapt  it  to  their  requirements.  In  publishing  it,  if 
they  can  contribute  to  making  more  effective  the  teaching  of  those 
who  use  it  and  to  improving  the  education  in  agriculture  which  the 
next  generation  shall  obtain,  the  authors  will  feel  compensated. 


CHAPTER  II 
HOW    TO    ORGANIZE    FOR    TEACHING    AGRICULTURE 

THE   CURRICULUM 

THE  curriculum  should  provide  for  many  forms  of  doing,  on 
the  theory  that  the  highest  forms  of  culture  are  as  dependent 
upon  doing  as  upon  knowing. 

The  curriculum  must  contain  problems  whose  solutions  are 
worth  seeking  if  the  problem  method  of  teaching  is  to  be  utilized 
to  its  best  advantage.  Agriculture,  as  a  subject  of  study,  lends 
itself  very  readily  to  the  problem  system  of  organizing  a  curricu- 
lum. The  real  makes  to  most  minds  a  more  valuable  as  well  as  a 
more  tangible  and  interesting  problem  for  solution  than  does  the 
fictional  or  the  unreal. 

The  non-vocational  agriculture  curriculum  should  contain  those 
materials  regarding  science  and  agriculture  which  should  constitute 
the  common  knowledge  of  every  well-educated  citizen  of  a  nation 
like  ours  whose  greatest  and  most  fundamental  industry  is  farming. 

The  pre-vocational  agriculture  curriculum  should  provide  for 
an  acquaintance  with  the  world  of  nature,  with  manual  labor,  and 
with  the  field  of  science;  furnish  the  experience  essential  to  the 
wise  choice  of  an  occupation;  and  give  the  beginnings  of  a  prepara- 
tion for 'farming  should  the  pupil  choose  that  vocation. 

The  vocational  agriculture  course  should  provide  such  a  knowl- 
edge of  scientific  and  practical  processes  and  such  a  skill  in  their 
application  as  will  enable  the  student  to  obtain  both  profit  and 
pleasure  from  the  occupation  of  farming. 

Content. — Regardless  of  what  methods  you  may  use  or  whether 
or  not  you  use  a  textbook  or  bulletins  or  other  helps,  the  agricul- 
ture curriculum  of  the  rural  school,  the  grades  of  the  town  school 
and  the  vocational  agriculture  of  the  high  school  should  be  based 
upon  the  actual  agricultural  operations  of  your  locality  (Figs.  2-5). 
No  other  plan  will  enable  you  to  obtain  the  full  and  rich  values 
and  fulfil  the  important  aims  of  the  teaching  of  agriculture.  Obtain 
courses  of  study  and  syllabi  and  outlines  from  all  possible  sources 
but  reject  in  them  everything  that  cannot  be  made  to  contribute 
to  a  practical  and  scientific  knowledge  of  the  agriculture  of  your 
own  locality.  Examine  the  laws  of  your  state,  the  rules  of  your 

7  * 


Fio.  2. 


§  s 


Cotton 

Corn 

Soils 

Fertilizers 

Garden. 

For.  Crops 

Chemistry 

Tobacco 

Cost.  Ace. 

S.  Potatoes 

Oats 

Wheat 

I.  Potatoes 

Rye 

Sorghum 

Weeds 


Fio.  3. 


i 


Cotton 

Corn 

Tobacco 

S.  Potatoes 

Oats 

Hay 

Wheat 

I.  Potatoes 

Rye 

Rice 


Fia.   4. 


CO    CO 

If".  -4 
to  o 


Recitation 
Sup.  Study 
Laboratory 
Field  Wort 
Demonstration 


Fi«.  2. — Relative  amount  of  class  time  devoted  to  the  various  field  crops  by  vocational 

schools  in  .South  Carolina. 

Fio.  3. — Relative  values  of  field  crops  in  South  Carolina. 

Flo.  4. — How  the  time  of  vocational   students  is  divided  in  the  South  Carolina  agricul- 
tural schools.     (.South  Carolina  State  Supervisor's  Report). 


THE  CURRICULUM 


?io.   5. — Graphs  showing  the  amount  of  time  devoted  to  each  class  of  stock,  by  the  high 

chools  of  one  state,  as  compared  with  the  value  of  the  stock  in  the  county.     Upper  bar  is 

the  time.     Lower  bar  is  the  valuation.     (.Study  by  Sherman  Dickinson.) 


10        HOW  TO  ORGANIZE  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 

state  department  of  education,  your  state  and  county  board  of 
education  and  local  board  so  far  as  they  apply  to  the  curriculum 
and  particularly  to  the  agricultural  curriculum.  If  any  of  these 
or  other  authorities  have  arranged  courses  of  study  or  outlines  in 
agriculture,  obtain  them.  Obtain  curricula  and  exercises  from  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, and  U.  S.  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  all  of 
Washington,  D.  C.,  and  from  your  state  college  of  agriculture  and 
the  college  or  department  of  education  of  your  State  University. 
In  many  of  the  states  the  normal  schools  have  rendered  valuable 
service  by  preparing  curricula  in  agriculture  suitable  for  the  rural 
schools  and  for  the  elementary  grades  of  the  town  schools.  If  such 
courses  have  been  prepared  by  the  normal  schools  of  your  state  or 
those  in  your  region  it  will  be  well  to  obtain  them  for  assistance  in 
organizing  your  curriculum.  If  these  can  be  made  to  apply  to 
your  local  agriculture,  use  them,  rejecting  such  portions  as  do  not. 
If  no  applicable  and  adequate  curriculum  is  obtainable,  develop 
one  yourself  with  the  approval  of  the  proper  administrative  officers, 
utilizing  such  assistance  from  the  sources  mentioned  above  and  from 
books,  pamphlets,  and  other  references  as  are  of  value.  Remember 
that  only  by  basing  your  selection  of  curriculum  material  largely 
upon  its  applicability  to  the  type  of  local  farming  can  the  greatest 
values  be  obtained  from  teaching  vocational  agriculture. 

As  a  standard  for  guidance  each  teacher,  whether  in  rural  school, 
grade  or  town  school,  or  high  school,  should  have  the  curriculum 
prepared  by  the  Committee  on  Agriculture  of  the  National  Edu- 
cation Association  Commission  on  Reorganization  of  Secondary 
Education,  which  is  published  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 
The  arrangement  of  this  curriculum  is  briefly  as  follows: 

Agronomy,  one  year;  animal  husbandry,  including  dairying 
and  poultry,  one  year;  horticulture,  soils,  farm  engineering,  and 
farm  management,  one-half  year  each.  This  sequence  and  time 
allotment  are  for  the  schools  in  the  regions  of  diversified  farming 
and  should  be  changed  to  be  adapted  to  any  special  type  of  farming 
or  modified  to  meet  the  needs  of  schools  unable  to  spend  that 
amount  of  time  upon  agriculture.  In  making  such  modifications, 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  type  of  local  agriculture,  the 
natural  interests  of  pupils,  the  pedagogical  sequence  of  the  subjects, 
correlations  with  other  portions  of  the  curriculum  and  the  relative 
administrative  adaptability  of  the  subjects  to  the  conditions  at 
the  school,  and,  if  necessary,  to  the  teacher's  preparation  on  the 


THREE- YEAR  ROTATION  11 

different  topics.  Essential  adjuncts  to  the  curriculum  are  the  home 
project  and  the  extension  work,  which  are  also  treated  in  the  report 
of  the  committee. 

Special  Organization  in  the  Rural  School. — In  the  rural  school 
where  pupils  are  few,  classes  many,  recitation  periods  short,  the 
teacher's  knowledge  of  agriculture  not  that  of  an  expert,  and  there- 
fore social  preparation  of  each  agricultural  lesson  almost  a  necessity 
and  the  teacher's  time  for  preparing  a  lesson  brief,  the  best  plan  of 
organization  is  to  have  only  one  class  in  agriculture  in  any  one  term. 
The  members  of  this  should  be  the  pupils  of  the  eighth  grade,  the 
seventh  grade,  the  sixth  grade  and  such  other  pupils  as  because  of 
nationality  or  special  interest  should  be  allowed  to  pursue  the  study. 

Three-year  Rotation  for  Rural  Schools. — The  curriculum  should 
then  be  distributed  over  three  years,  one  year  of  which  is  taught 
each  school  year.  For  example,  suppose  it  were  decided  to  include 
in  one  year  of  the  curriculum  the  study  of  the  crops  of  the  field, 
garden,  and  orchard;  in  another  year,  the  animals  of  the  farm — 
horses,  cattle,  hogs,  sheep,  poultry,  including  the  various  animal 
products  such  as  milk,  butter,  cheese  and  eggs;  and  in  a  third  year 
the  mechanical  work  on  a  farm,  planning,  arranging  and  beautify- 
ing the  farm  and  farm  home,  simple  farm  records  and  accounts, 
good  roads,  community  needs  and  improvements,  and  similar 
topics.  During  the  school  year  1920-1921,  the  pupils  in  grades 
6,  7,  and  8  would  study  the  agriculture  of  the  crop  year  of  the  curric- 
ulum; during  the  school  year  1921-1922,  the  pupils  who  were  that 
year  in  grades  6,  7,  and  8  would  study  the  agriculture  of  the  animal 
year  of  the  curriculum;  and  during  the  school  year  1922-1923,  the 
pupils  who  were  that  year  in  grades  6,  7,  and  8  would  study  the 
other  year  of  the  agriculture  curriculum.  Then  in  the  school  year 
1923-1924,  the  crop  year  would  be  studied  again,  the  other  two 
years  following  in  succession.  Through  this  plan  each  pupil  (when 
the  plan  is  fully  in  operation)  would  obtain  three1  veal's'  instruction 
in  agriculture,  but  the  teacher  would  have;  only  one  class  in  agri- 
culture in  any  one  year,  and  would  prepare  herself  for  only  one- 
third  of  the  curriculum  during  any  one  year. 

AMien  such  a  plan  is  in  operation  in  a  county  or  a  state,  all  thee 
forces,  including  public  interest,  are  concentrated  upon  the  special 
work  for  that  year,  and  the  results  are  greatly  improved  thereby. 

The  above  distribution  of  topics  within  each  of  the  three  years 
is  not  essential.  Some  of  the  crops,  some  of  the  animals,  and  some 
of  the  mechanics,  and  farm  and  community  improvement  topics 


12        HOW  TO  ORGANIZE  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 

may  be  put  in  each  of  the  three  years,  and  the  plan  be  administered 
equally  well. 

Special  Organization  in  the  Grades  of  the  Town  School. — Since 
pupils  in  the  town  schools,  due  to  greater  regularity  of  attendance, 
are,  on  the  average,  younger  in  the  same  grade,  it  is  better  to  con- 
fine the  agriculture  work  here  to  the  two  upper  grades,  the  curricu- 
lum being  two  years  instead  of  three  years  in  length.  If  classes 
are  smaii  the  pupils  of  the  two  grades  may  be  united  and  half  of 
the  curriculum  taught  to  them  each  alternate  year  of  school,  thereby 
saving  time  and  labor  for  the  teacher.  If  classes  are  of  normal 
size  or  larger,  both  years  of  the  curriculum  can  be  taught  each 
school  year,  one  to  the  seventh  grade  and  one  to  the  eighth. 


FIG.  6. — Appropriate  styles  of  working  garments  worn  by  boys  in  agriculture  and  girls  in 
domestic  science.     (G.  S.  Boggan,  Ark.) 

In  a  school  where  there  is  but  one  seventh  grade  class  and  one 
eighth  grade  class,  and  only  the  boys  take  agriculture  (the  girls 
taking  home  economics  or  some  other  study  at  the  same  hour), 
combining  the  boys  of  both  grades  into  one  class  is  better  adminis- 
tration (Fig.  6). 

Special  Organization  in  the  High  School. — Since  high  school 
agriculture  is  a  subject  requiring  frequent  laboratory  work  and 
since  high  school  administration  is  organized  on  the  basis  of  double 
periods  for  laboratory  work,  it  is  impossible  for  one  teacher  of 
agriculture  to  teach  the  entire  four  years  of  the  agriculture 
curriculum  during  the  same  year  and  perform  the  other  duties 
necessarily  connected  with  agricultural  teaching.  If  the  number 
of  pupils  studying  agriculture  is  great  enough  to  require  four 
classes,  an  additional  teacher  of  agriculture  should  be  employed. 


SPECIAL  ORGANIZATION  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


13 


If  the  agronomy  course  is  to  be  taught  every  year  and  the 
animal  husbandry  course  every  year,  and  the  remaining  courses 
each  once  in  two  years,  by  combining  all  the  agricultural 
students  of  the  highest  two  years  into  one  class,  one  teacher 
can  conduct  the  classes  if  he  does  not  teach  other  classes  in  the 
grades  or  special  groups  such  as  the  teachers'  training  classes  in 
the  high  school. 

If  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  high  school  agriculture  classes 
is  small  enough  to  permit  it,  the  agronomy  course  can  be  taught 
to  the  combined  freshman  and  sophomore  classes  one  year  and  the 
animal  husbandry  course  taught  the  next  year  to  the  combined 


FIG.  7. — Young  women  as  well  as  young  men  may  pursue  projects  in  apple  growing.     Here 
they  are  having  their  first  practice  in  a  neighbor's  orchard. 

freshman  and  sophomore  classes  of  that  year.  In  like  manner  the 
juniors  and  seniors  may  be  combined  into  one  class  in  agriculture 
each  year,  one  year  studying  soils  and  horticulture  and  the  next 
farm  mechanics  and  farm  management.  With  this  arrangement 
the  teacher  of  agriculture  will  be  able  to  teach  some  agriculture 
in  the  grades  below  the  high  school  and  also  one  special  class,  if 
the  number  of  such  recitations  be  not  too  great,  and  still  have 
some  time  for  community  work. 

All  of  the  above  arrangements  provide  for  the  high  school 
pupil  obtaining  four  years  of  agriculture  work  in  the  high  school 
without  so  overloading  the  teacher  as  to  prevent  his  attending  to 
his  other  essential  duties  as  an  agriculture  specialist. 


14        HOW  TO  ORGANIZE  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 

Supervising  Agriculture  in  Nearby  Schools. — If,  as  in  Minne- 
sota under  the  statute  for  associated  schools,  the  special  teacher 
is  expected  to  conduct  work  in  the  nearby  one-teacher  rural  schools, 
the  organization  of  his  work  in  the  central  school  must  provide 
time  for  this  to  be  done  without  encroaching  upon  his  other  class 
work  or  his  community  duties. 

Where  there  are  several  such  rural  schools  associated  with  the 
same  central  town  school,  this  becomes  an  important  feature  of 
his  work.  In  such  a  system  probably  the  best  procedure  is  for  the 
special  teacher  of  agriculture  to  lay  out  the  curriculum,  assemble 
the  rural  teachers  at  a  central  point  and  prepare  them  for  teaching 
it  and  then  let  them  teach  it  to  their  pupils  under  his  supervision. 
This  supervision  may  be  by  regular  (perhaps  weekly)  visits,  and 
occasional  reviews  and  quizzes. 


Fia.  8. — The  dairy  and  soils  classes  make  use  of  the  chemical  laboratory.     (W.  P.  Dyer.) 

Emphasis  on  Farm  Practices. — Vocational  agriculture  must 
have  as  one  of  its  definite  purposes  the  attainment  of  the  best 
farm  practices.  Whether  in  high  school,  grades,  or  rural  school, 
what  to  do  and  how  best  to  do  it  accompanied  by  such  a  knowledge 
of  scientific  principles  as  makes  possible  rational  procedure  whether 
sets  of  conditions  are  identical  or  merely  similar,  should  be  a  domi- 
nating ideal  in  the  choice  of  the  curriculum  and  in  the  methods  and 
organization  and  administration  of  the  agricultural  work  of  the 
school.  The  content  of  the  curriculum  should  be  chosen  with  that 
end  plainly  in  view  and  any  organization  or  administrative  diffi- 
culties that  arise  should  be  caused  to  give  way,  so  far  as  possible, 
to  the  accomplishment  of  that  aim  (Fig.  7) . 

Correlations  ot  the  Curriculum. — Not  only  should  the  parts  of 
the  agricultural  curriculum  articulate  properly  with  each  other, 
but  the  agriculture  should  correlate  effectively  with  the  other 


CLASSIFICATION  NOT  DIFFICULT  IN  AGRICULTURE       15 

studies  of  the  general  curriculum.  The  thoughtful  teacher  will 
find  many  opportunities  to  correlate  the  agriculture  work  with 
language',  arithmetic,  and  geography  as  well  as  the  work  of  the 
season  at  the  homes  and  on  the  farms.  In  the  high  school,  special 
effort  should  be  made  to  correlate  the  work  of  the  sciences  with 
the  agriculture  in  order  that  the  former  may  prepare  for  the  latter 
and  the  latter  give  point  and  purpose  to  the  former.  Botany 
should  prepare  for  crop  studies;  zoology  for  the  animals  and  the 
animal  jx^sts  of  crops;  physics  and  chemistry  for  farm  engineering 
and  soils;  and  general  science  for  all.  Such  correlations  offer  some 
administrative  difficulties  but  every  effort  should  be  made  to 
establish  them.  The  science  teachers  and  the  agriculture  teacher 
should  cooperate  to  the  greatest  possible  extent  to  further  this 
coordination  (Fig.  8). 

THE  CLASS 

Assigning  the  Pupil  to  His  Group. — The  one  general  basis  of 
determining  to  what  class  or  group  an  individual  pupil  shall  be 
assigned  is  the  relative  values  to  that  pupil  at  that  time  of  the  work 
of  the  different  portions  of  the  curriculum.  This  will  depend  upon 
two  main  conditions:  his  ability  to  comprehend  the  subject  matter 
and  its  serviceability  if  comprehended.  In  the  lower  grades  where 
a  knowledge  of  the  content  of  one  grade  is  necessary  to  do  the 
work  of  the  next  grade,  passing  successively  through  the  grades 
in  regular  order  will  usually  be  required.  In  the  upper  grades 
(seventh  to  twelfth  approximately)  such  rigidity  is  not  necessary 
and  wisely  guarded  choices  may  be  allowed,  limited  only  by  the 
two  conditions  just  named. 

His  ability  to  comprehend  will  depend  upon  his  age,  native 
ability,  home  surroundings  and  health.  The  value  of  the  curricu- 
lum content  to  him  (above  the  lower  grades)  will  depend  upon  the 
plans  for  his  future  schooling  and  life  work  and  those  general  aims 
of  advanced  education  mentioned  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter 
'(Fig.  9). 

Classification  Not  Difficult  in  Agriculture. — The  teacher  of  agri- 
culture will  have  little  difficulty  in  classifying  a  pupil  in  that 
subject.  His  general  classification  will  have  been  determined 
previously  by  the  administrative  regulations  of  the  school.  For 
agriculture  but  two  questions  will  have  to  be  answered:  Is  he 
capable  of  successfully  comprehending  the  subject?  Is  it  of 
sufficient  value  to  him  at  this  time? 


16        HOW  TO  ORGANIZE  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 

While  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  members  of  an  agriculture 
class  of  about  the  same  age,  capability  and  attainment,  it  is  quite 
possible  for  a  keen  twelve-year-old  boy  of  the  sixth  grade  to  do  as 


FIG.  9. — Pupils  of  third  and  fourth  grade  may  have  practice  in  knotting  and  splicing  of 
ropes.     (Lewiston,  Minn.,  Schools.) 


Flo.   10. — The  normal  students  in  hich  school  need  to  have  practice  in  corn  scoring.     (Shako- 
pee,  Minn.,  High  School.) 

good  work  in  the  rural  school  agriculture  class  as  a  less  keen  sixteen- 
year-old  boy  of  the  eighth  grade.  In  the  one-room  rural  school 
there  should  be  one  agriculture  class,  as  explained  under  "curricu- 
lum" and  this  should  contain  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades,  or  at  least,  such  as  desire  to  take  it,  and  similar 


AGRICULTURE  IN  THE  PROGRAM 


17 


pupils  from  the  sixth  grade  who  desire  it  and  are  capable  of  com- 
prehending it  properly.  In  the  high  school  when  the  subject  is 
first  introduced,  any  pupil  who  desires  to  take  it  in  the  class  in 
which  it  is  offered  or  in  any  class  above  should  be  admitted,  subject 
only  to  the  number  limit  of  pupils  of  the  class  and  to  program  con- 
flicts. Even  when  the  curriculum  is  fully  established,  any  student 
classified  above  a  certain  agricultural  subject  should  lx>  allowed  to 
enter  the  class  and  in  exceptional  cases,  for  sufficient  reasons,  a 
pupil  classified  below  might  be  allowed  to  enter  also.  In  the  high 
school  the  greatest  freedom  should  be  allowed  in  vocational  studies 
limited  by  proper  guidance.  (Fig.  10).  Pupils  of  different  gen- 
eral classification  may  succeed  equally  well  in  such  a  vocational 
subject  as  agriculture. 


FIG.   11. — Even  the  local  livery  stable  is  sometimes  vis 

(J.  A.  Wisdom.) 


(1  by  classes  in  animal  husbandry. 


DAILY    PROGRAM    OR   SCHEDULE   OF    RECITATIONS 

Necessity.— To  direct  and  conserve  the  time  and  efforts  of  the 
teacher  and  the  pupils,  a  definite,  systematically  arranged  program 
of  recitation  is  essential  to  the  efficiency  of  eveiy  school.  The 
program  of  each  day  need  not  necessarily  be  identical  with  that  of 
every  other  day,  nor  the  program  be  like  that  of  another  school, 
nor  is  it  necessaiy  that  the  program  provided  for  a  certain  day  be 
held  absolutely  immutable  if  sufficient  cause  arises  to  warrant  a 
change.  But  a  time  and  place  should  be  provided  for  each  exercise 
of  every  day. 

Agriculture  in  the  Program. — In  the  crowded  rural  school  many 

plans  may  be  used  to  find  time  in  the  program  for  agriculture. 

If  substituted  for  a  part  of  the  language  lessons  there  will  be  no 

loss,  for  it  will  furnish  the  content  for  many  of  the  most  valuable 

2 


18        HOW  TO  ORGANIZE  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 

lessons.  Likewise  in  the  reading  the  study  and  silent  reading  of 
agricultural  literature  specifically  related  to  the  work  being  done 
in  agriculture  will  be  of  greater  value  than  many  formal  reading 


FIQ.   12. — The  normal  training  class  must  be  given  practice  work  so  they  can  make  their 
teaching  thorough.    Digging  potatoes.     (Bemidji,  Minn.,  Schools.) 


Fio.   J3. — Banquet    prepared    by  short-course   girls    for  short  course   class   in    agriculture. 

(L.  A.  Henke,  Minn  ) 

lessons  because  of  being  moro  purposeful.  By  alternating  with 
geography  or  history  and  (since  three  classes  are  combined)  by 
increasing  the  length  of  the  recitation  beyond  the  average  enough 
work  can  be  done  to  cover  a  good  curriculum.  The  vital  relation- 


IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


19 


ship  of  the  subject  matter  to  the  life  of  the  community  and  the 
vitalizing  effect  of  the  other  studies  ought  to  make  its  inclusion  in 
the  program  a  real  economy  of  time. 

Placing  it  in  the  program  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  of 
the  town  school  is  a  much  simpler  task,  as  two  or  three  recitations 
a  week  of  agriculture  can  be  easily  substituted  for  some  of  the  more 
formal  and  less  valuable  parts  of  the  other  studies  there.  If  home 
economics  is  provided  for  the  girls  of  these  grades  and  either  or 
both  the  agriculture  and  home  economics  taught  by  a  special 
teacher,  one  or  both  sets  of  pupils  can  go  to  the  rooms  of  the 
special  subject  to  recite  at  the  same  period. 

In  the  high  school  the  program  is  more  difficult  to  arrange. 
To  make  a  four-year  curriculum  available  to  the  student;  to  have 
double  laboratory  periods  available  for  each  class  every  day 
(Fig.  11);  to  teach  some  agriculture  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades;  to  teach  the  normal  teacher  training  class  of  prospective 
rural  teachers  (Fig.  12);  and  yet  find  time  for  conducting  home 
projects,  community  activities,  short  courses  (Fig.  13),  a  school 
plot  of  ground,  and  home  gardens  of  pupils,  and  supervise  work 
in  nearby  rural  schools  with  one  agricultural  instructor  requires  a 
well-arranged  program  for  the  week. 

Let  us  see  some  of  the  possibilities.  Suppose  the  freshman 
class  is  studying  agronomy,  the  sophomore  animal  husbandry,  the 
eighth  grade  two  recitations  per  week  and  the  normal  class  three 
per  week;  his  arrangement  could  be  as  follows: 


Monday 

Tuesday 

Wednesday 

Thursday 

Friday 

First  period  < 

Animal 
husbandry 

Animal 
husbandry 

Animal 
husbandry 

Animal 
husbandry 

Animal 
husbandry 

Second  period  .  .  .  < 

Animal 
husbandry 

Animal 
husbandry 

Animal 
husbandry 

Animal 
husbandry 

Animal 
husbandry 

Third  period  

Agronomy 

Agronomy 

Agronomy 

Agronomy 

Agronomy 

Fourth  period  

Agronomy 

Agronomy 

Agronomy 

Agronomy 

Agronomy 

Fifth  period  .  .  .  .  < 

Normal 
class 

Eighth 
grade 

Normal 
class 

Eighth 
grade 

Normal 
class 

Sixth  period    .  .  . 

Seventh  period  .  .  . 

Eichth  erade  .  . 

This  would  leave  him  most  of  the  afternoon  for  projects,  com- 
munity service,  rural  schoofs,  gardens,  school  plot,  and  preparation. 

Any  day  when  a  high  school  class  needed  a  double  period  for 
laboratory  work  it  could  be  available  by  extending  the  work  into 
the  second  of  the  two  periods  provided. 


20        HOW  TO  ORGANIZE  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 


A  more  condensed  program  is  possible  under  the  following  plan : 


Monday 

Tuesday 

Wednesday 

Thursday 

Friday 

First  period  .  .  .  .  < 
Second  period  .... 

Animal 
husbandry 

Animal 
husbandry 

Animal 
husbandry 

Animal 
husbandry 

Animal 
husbandry 

Third  period  

Agronomy 

Agronomy 

Agronomy 

Agronomy 

Agronomy 

Fourth  period  .  .  .  j 
Fifth  period  

Normal 
class 

Eighth 
grade 

Normal 
class 

Eighth 
grade 

Normal 
class 

Sixth  period  ...    . 

Seventh  period  .  .  . 

This  would  give  him  afternoons  entirely  free  from  class-room 
work  and  would  allow  him  to  use  the  second  period  for  laboratory 
work  in  animal  husbandry  (Fig.  11)  or  agronomy  on  any  day  but 
not  for  both  on  the  same  day.  This  is  only  possible  in  case  the 
animal  husbandry  students  have  no  other  recitation  the  first  and 
second  periods  and  the  agronomy  students  none  the  second  and 
third  periods.  The  possibilities  of  program  arrangements  under 
different  conditions  can  be  further  shown  by  working  out  the  exer- 
cises at  the  close  of  this  chapter 

THE   TEXTBOOK 

Scoring  Textbooks. — To  properly  evaluate  the  various  texts 
in  a  subject  and  to  reach  a  sound  conclusion  regarding  their  rela- 
tive values  and  their  adaptability  to  a  given  set  of  conditions  a 
score  card  is  of  great  assistance.  The  following  score  card  was 
originated  by  the  faculty  of  the  Division  of  Agricultural  Education 
of  the  University  of  Minnesota  and  has  been  used  for  several  years 
by  the  students  taking  courses  in  that  department.  Every  student 
preparing  to  teach  agriculture  is  required  to  judge  by  aid  of  this 
score  card  several  books  in  each  of  the  branches  of  agriculture, 
agronomy,  animal  husbandry,  soils,  horticulture,  farm  manage- 
ment and  farm  engineering;  and  also  books  for  the  grade  agricul- 
ture and  country  schools  and  for  the  normal  training  class  in  which 
are  prepared  the  country  teachers.  Each  student  thus  begins  his 
work  as  a  teacher  with  a  carefully  developed  judgment  of  the  rela- 
tive merits  of  the  various  books  from,  which  he  may  be  required 
to  select  those  to  be  used  in  his  classes. 

Choosing  by  the  Aid  of  the  Score  Card. — The  general  plan  of 
the  score  card  is  to  assign  to  each  desirable  characteristic  that  a 
textbook  ought  to  possess  a  certain  numerical  value,  the  total  of 


EXPLANATION  AND  USE  OF  SCORE  CARD  21 

which  value  equals  100.  The  values  assigned  to  the  separate 
characteristics  on  the  score  card  are  supposed  to  represent  the 
relative  importance;  of  the  different  characteristics  on  the  basis 
of  their  total  being  100.  For  example;  "adaptability"  is  of  much 
more  value  than  "binding." 

The  general  procedure  in  selecting  a  book  by  aid  of  the  score 
card  is: 

First. — Obtain  copies  of  such  books  as  by  information  or  cursory 
examination  seem  to  be  adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  the 
chosen  book  is  to  l>e  used. 

Second. — Familiarize  yourself  with  the  general  plan  of  the 
score  card  and  with  the  meaning  and  scope  and  value  of  each 
item  of  it. 

Third. — Record  the  score  of  the  different  books  for  each  item. 

Fourth. — Add  the  values  assigned  to  a  book  to  obtain  the  total 
score  for  that  book. 

Fifth. — Rank  the  books  according  to  the  total  score  of  each, 
assigning  first  rank  to  the  book  whose  score  is  nearest  100. 

Sixth. — Examine  the  books  without  the  aid  of  the  score  card 
and  see  if  your  "general  judgment"  regarding  their  several  ranks 
agrees  with  that  obtained  by  the  score  card. 

Seventh. — Examine  your  score  card  and  the  books  for  errors 
in  figures  or  judgment,  correcting  until  score  card  and  general 
judgment  agree. 

Explanation  of  the  Score  Card  and  its  Use. — Content. — This  signifies  the 
subject  matter  which  the  hook  contains  and  is  somewhat  independent  of  its 
specific  teaching  qualities  although  a  hook  lacking  in  the  characteristics  scored 
herein  would  be,  of  necessity,  a  poor  book  to  use  in  teaching. 

Adaptability. — Ask  such  questions  as:  Is  it  too  difficult  or  too  easy  for 
the  class  of  pupils  for  whom  a  book  is  being  chosen  (<'.(/.,  high  school  seniors, 
juniors,  sophomores,  or  freshmen,  eighth  grade,  rural  school,  prospective  rural 
teachers)?  Is  it  adapted  to  the  type  of  local  agriculture?  Does  it  cover  the 
field  desired?  Does  it  follow  properly  preceding  texts  used  by  this  class? 

Proportion. — Make  careful  comparisons  of  the  quantity  distribution  of 
the  various  topics.  Within  the  field  desired  is  the  content  distributed  in 
projier  relative  quantities  over  the  various  topics  considered?  Are  some 
treated  too  fully  (relatively)  or  too  briefly  or  omitted? 

Laboratory  Exerciser. — Are  there  any?  Do  they  projjerly  cLirify  or  reen- 
force  the  text  material?  Are  they  adapted  to  the  laboratory  facilities  that 
can  be  made  available  to  this  class?  Are  there  questions  on  experience?  Arc 
there  suggestions  for  home  exercises,  readings  and  observations? 

References. — Are  there  any?  Do  they  refer  to  authorities  for  statements 
made?  Are  references  suggested  for  further  reading?  Are  they  to  specific 
pages  or  chapters  or  to  titles  only?  Are  they  placed  in  the  body  of  the  text, 
at  the  close  of  the  topic,  at  the  foot  of  the  page,  at  the  end  of  the  chapter  or 
at  the  end  of  the  book? 


22         HOW  'IX)  ORGANIZE  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 


(Score  Card  fur  Agriculture  Textbooks 

(Modified  from  the  original  developed  by  the  Division  of  AKricultura!  Kduration,  Uni 

of  Minnesota) 


versify 


NOTE  1.  —  A  hook  must  he  scored 
on  the  basis  of  its  fitness  for 
the    particular    class,    school 
and  locality  in  which  it  is  to 
be  used. 
NOTE  2.—  I'se  back  of  sheet  for 
explanations  and  remarks. 

Perfect  score 

Titles  and  authors  of  books 
(One  column  for  each  book) 

Qualities  or  characteristics  upon 
which  book  is  to  be  scored. 

CONTENT: 

(45) 





Adaptability 

18 









Proportion 

12 

Laboratory  Exercises 

5 









References 

4 



Index 

3 









Accuracy 

3 

PEDAGOGICAL  CHARACTER: 

(40) 







Sequence 

10 



Correlations 

10 



Clearness 

10 

5 















Vocabulary 

Illustrations 

5 













MECHANICAL  CONSTRUCTION  : 

(15) 





— 

Type 

5 

Cuts 

3 







Headings  and  paragraphs 

3 

2 
1 









Paper 



Binding 

Size 

1 





Total  score 

(100) 

Rank  of  each  book 

EXPLANATION   AND  USE  OF  SCORE  CARD  23 

Index. — Has  it  a  general  table  of  contents?  Is  it  sufficiently  full?  Mas 
it  an  alphabetically  arranged  analytic  index?  Is  it  complete?  Well  arranged? 

Accuracy. — Are  its  statements  true?  An;  its  figures  correct,  recent,  and 
based  upon  the  best  authority?  Does  it  give  specific  or  only  general  state- 
ments? Are  values  given  accurately  or  only  approximately?  Is  its  analytic 
alphabetic  index  accurate? 

Pedagogical  Character. — A  good  text  must  contain  not  only  good  material 
as  shown  by  the  content  score  but  it  must  have  that  material  in  projx-r  form 
and  arrangement  for  teaching.  It  is  not  enough  to  know  that  it  contains 
valuable  information  of  the  kind  needed  by  the  pupils  but  is  the  material 
so  arranged  and  expressed  as  to  make  learning  economical  and  effective? 
Is  it  "teachable"? 

Sequence. — Are  the  chapters,  topics  and  paragraphs  arranged  in  the  Iwst 
teaching  order?  '  Do  the  earlier  prepare  for  the  later?  Do  the  later  utilize 
effectively  and  economically  the  teachings  of  the  earlier?  Is  the  general 
sequence  that  which  you  prefer  to  follow  in  your  school?  Does  the  sequence 
conform  sufficiently  to  the  seasonal  activities  of  the  loc:il  agriculture?  To  the 
time  the  pupils  will  be  studying  agriculture  in  the  school?  To  seasonal  oppor- 
tunities for  home;  projects  or  other  practical  applications?  To  the  best  peda- 
gogical procedure? 

Correlations. — Are  the  different  chapters,  topics,  and  paragraphs  made  to 
rcenforce  each  other  effectively  and  economically?  Are  cross  references  so 
used  that  in  teaching  the  sequence  could  be  different  from  that  of  the  number- 
ing of  the  pages  without  destroying  the  value  of  the  correlations?  Are  funda- 
mentals (e.g.,  Mendelism)  which  are  needed  in  several  places  explained  only 
once  and  then  referred  to  whenever  wanted? 

Clearness. — In  general  is  the  expression  clear?  Are  explanations  clean- 
cut  and  convincing?  Are  sentences  definite  and  their  meaning  unmistak- 
able? Will  pupils  obtain  from  the  text  a  correct  and  explicit  understanding 
of  the  subject? 

Vocabulary. — Are  the  words  properly  chosen?  Are  the  best  terms  of 
scientific  and  practical  agriculture  used  and  in  their  accepted  significance? 
Are  the  words  comprehensible  by  the  class  of  pupils  for  whom  the  book  is 
being  chosen? 

Illustrations. — Are  the  verbal  illustrations  apt?  Are  they  convincingly 
expressed?  Are  the  pictorial  and  diagrammatic  illustrations  pedagogical,  that 
is,  do  they  teach?  Do  they  illuminate  the  language  of  the  text?  If  from  photo- 
graphs, were  they  composed  for  the  most  instructive  results?  Do  the  essential 
points  stand  out?  Do  they  show  projxr  proportion?  Are  illustrations  suffi- 
cient in  number?  Are  they  sufficiently  explained  or  described? 

Mechanical  Construction. — Did  the  printer  and  the  binder  so  perform  their 
work  as  to  make  the  book  adapted  to  the  use  of  the  class  of  pupils  for  whom  a 
selection  is  being  made? 

Type. — Is  the  type  neither  too  large  nor  too  small?  Are  the  letters  free 
from  extra  and  unnecessary  lines?  Is  a  page  of  it  restful  or  irritating  to  the 
eyes?  Arc  the  lines  of  print  far  enough  apart? 

Cuts. — Are  the  cuts  mechanically  well  made  with  the  kind  of  screen  best 
adapted  to  the  paper  used?  Are  they  clearly  defined?  Is  the  press  work  good? 
Are  cuts  large  enough?  Well  placed  on  the  page?  Well  placed  in  relation  to 
the  subject  matter  which  they  are  intended  to  illustrate? 

Headings  and  Paragraphs. — Are  they  in  proper  type?  Are  they  arranged 
to  show  the  relationship  of  the  topics?  Do  they  guide  the  eye  quickly  to  the 
material  desired?  Do  they  aid  in  a  grasp  of  the  content? 

Paper. — Is  the  paper  sufficiently  thin  and  tough?  Is  it  sufficiently  dark 
and  sufficiently  dull  of  finish  to  be  comfortable  for  the  eyes?  Is  it  sufficiently 
firm  and  opaque  to  prevent  any  impression  from  the  opposite  page  showing 
through?  Does  it  permit  a  clear-cut  impression  of  type  and  cuts? 


24         HOW  TO  ORGANIZE  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 

Binding. — Is  the  binding  strong  enough?  Is  it  sufficiently  flexible?  Are 
the  materials,  colors,  and  style  adapted  to  the  prospective  use?  Will  it  wear 
long  enough? 

Sine. — For  the  pupils  for  whom  intended  is  the  book  the  right  length, 
breadth,  and  thickness?  Is  it  adapted  to  being  carried  and  stored  with  other 
textbooks?  Is  it  adapted  to  the  desks  used?  Could  its  size  be  improved  by 
the  use  of  different  paper  or  margins  without  interfering  with  its  content  or 
pedagogical  values?  Would  it  be  worth  omitting  some  of  the  less  important 
parts  of  the  content  to  reduce  the  size? 

Total  Score. — There  are  two  systems  of  recording  the  score  values,  and 
finding  the  total  score.  In  one  the  book  is  credited  with  the  amount  of  the 
desirable  characteristic  which  it  possesses  and  these  amounts  are  added  to 
obtain  the  final  score  of  the  book.  In  the  other  the  book  is  debited  with  the 
amount  the  scorer  decides  should  be  taken  off,  or  "cut,"  because  of  its  not 
possessing  a  proper  amount  of  that  characteristic;  these  "cuts"  are  then 
totaled  and  their  sum  taken  from  100,  which  gives  the  final  score  for  that  book. 
The  crediting  system  is  preferred  by  most  persons. 

Rank. — After  the  final  scores  are  found  the  books  may  be  ranked,  the  one 
whose  score  is  nearest  100  being  ranked  one. 

In  General. — When  scoring  several  books  it  is  better  to  score  all  of  them 
upon  "adaptability,"  then  all  upon  "proportion"  and  so  on  through  the  score 
card  than  it  is  to  score  each  book  through  the  entire  score  card  separately. 
By  this  plan  all  the  books  are  scored  upon  one  quality  while  the  judgment  of 
trie  scorer  is  concentrated  upon  that  quality  and  upon  all  the  books  in  respect 
to  that  quality.  This  is  likely  to  result  in  a  sounder  score. 

If  the  book  is  so  defective  in  some  important  particular  that,  regardless 
of  its  possessing  other  valuable  features  you  would  not  want  to  use  it  at  all, 
it  should  be  marked  low  enough  upon  that  point  to  cause  its  rejection. 

EXERCISES 

1 .  Discuss  the  adaptability  to  your  school  of  the  curriculum  recommended 
by  the  N.  E.  A.  Committee  on  Agriculture    (U.  S.  Bu.  Ed.  Bulletin)  and 
recommend  improvements. 

2.  Arrange  the  various  main  topics  of  agriculture  in  a  "three-year  rota- 
tion "  as  proposed  in  the  text  for  a  one-teacher  rural  school  giving  due  emphasis 
to  the  type  of  local  agriculture. 

3.  Arrange  the  sciences  of  your  high  school  curriculum  and  the  principal 
topics  of  each  science  in  the  order  in  which  you  would  like  to  have  them  pre- 
sented in  order  to  furnish  the  pupils  the  best  preparation  for  their  agriculture. 

4.  Enumerate  a  few  ways  in  which  the  grade  and  rural  agriculture  can  be 
made  to  correlate  with  the  other  subjects  of  the  curriculum. 

5.  Several  farm  girls  want  to  join  the  class  in  agronomy;  would  you  ap- 
prove their  doing  so?    The  animal  husbandly  class?    The  horticulture  class? 
Give  reasons  for  your  derision. 

6.  A  senior  wishes  to  take  agronomy  with  the  freshmen;  would  you  ap- 
prove?   Why? 

7.  Examine  the  daily  programs  of  recitation  of  several  rural  schools  near 
you  and  see  how  they  could  be  so  arranged  as  to  provide  for  a  recitation  in 
agriculture  twice  a  week;  three  times  a  week;  five  times  a  week. 

8.  Examine  the  programs  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grade  classes  in  your 
town  schools  and  see  how  they  can  be  adapted  to  the  following: 

(a)  Combining  the  boys  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  in  an  agricul- 
ture class  while  the  girls  of  these  grades  take  sewing  in  the  seventh  grade  room; 
(b)  teaching  the  boys  of  grade  eight  agriculture  in  the  high  school  agriculture 
rooms  twice  a  week;  (c)  teaching  the  eighth  grade  boys  agriculture  three  times 


REFERENCES  25 

a  week  in  their  room  nnd  the  seventh  grade  boys  agriculture  twice  a  week  in 
your  agriculture  rooms. 

0.  If  a  junior  high  school  program  is  available,  see  how  it  can  be  adjusted 
BO  students  desiring  it  can  obtain  two  years'  work  in  agriculture  and  take  UK 
large  as  possible  an  amount  and  variety  of  other  prevocational  subjects. 

10.  If  a  normal  training  class  program  is  available,  set;  how  it  can  be 
arranged  to  permit  the  entire  class  to  receive  instruction  from  the  agriculture 
teacher  under  each  of  the  following  conditions:    («)  five  lessons  a  week  during 
9  weeks  of  the  fall  and  9  weeks  of  the  spring;  (b)  three;  lessons  a  week  during 
the  first  half  of  the  year;  (r)  two  lessons  a  week  throughout  the  year;  (il)  com- 
bined with  the  regular  agronomy  class  in  the  high  school. 

11.  How   can   the   program    be   arranged   to   meet  a,  b,  c,  and  d,  condi- 
tions in  exercise  10,  if  the  agriculture  is  to  be  taught  by  the  normal  training 
teacher,  herself? 

12.  Make  a  week's  program  for  the  special  teacher  of  agriculture  in  a 
four  year  high  school  under  the  following  sets  of  conditions  in  a  system  of 
schools  containing  twelve  grades  in  town  and  some  associated  rural  schools: 

(a)  Freshmen,    agronomy,    daily;   sophomores,    animal   husbandry,   and 
juniors  and  seniors,  farm  management,  daily. 

(b)  Freshmen  and  sophomores,  agronomy;  juniors  and  seniors,  farm  me- 
chanics; eighth  grade;  all  classes  daily. 

(r)  Freshmen,  agronomy,  daily;  sophomores  and  juniors,  animal  hus- 
bandry, daily;  seniors,  farm  management  three  days  per  week. 

(«)  Three  rural  schools  five  days  per  week  supervised  by  agriculture 
teacher  one  day  JXT  week,  each. 

13.  Make  other  programs  for  other  conditions  known  to  exist  near  you 
or  that  you  hypothetic-ally  create. 

14.  How  does  your  program  compare  with  those  in  this  chapter? 

15.  Each  student  score  unaided  and  without  conferring  with  other  persons, 
two  to  four  textbooks  from  which  a  selection  is  to  be  made  for  a  class  in  your 
locality  in  (a)  agronomy;  (b)  a  class  in  animal  husbandry;  (c)  in  soils;  (d)  in 
horticulture;  (c)  in  farm  management;  (/)  in  farm  mechanics. 

16.  In  like  manner,  score  five  books  adapted  to  rural  classes  in  agriculture 
and  five  adapted  to  the  normal  training  class. 

17.  Students  compare  their  scores  and  each  defend  his  score,  in  class. 

18.  Judge  comparatively  other  books  of  the  same  classes,  without  scoring 
and  justify  orally  or  in  writing  the  placings. 

19.  Select  from  all  books  studied  those  you  world  prefer  as  class  texts 
in  the  types  of  schools  in  which  you  are  teaching  or  expect  to  teach. 

REFERENCES 

BonniTT,  FRANKLIN:    "The  Curriculum." 
CARNEY,  MADEL:    "Country  Life  and  the  Country  School." 
COLVIN,  STEPHEN  SHELDON:  "An  Introduction  to  High  School  Teaching." 
HOLLISTER,  HORACE  E. :    "High  School  and  Class  Mnnagen  ent." 
HUMMELL,  W.  G.,  and  BERTHA  R. :     "Materials  and  Methods  in  High 
School  Agriculture." 

INGLIS,  ALEXANDER:    "Principles  of  Secondary  Education." 

LANE,  CHARLES  H. :  "Correlating  Agriculture  with  Public  School  Subjects." 

MONROE,  PAUL:    "Principles  of  Secondary  Education." 

NOLAN,  ARETAS  W. :    "The  Teaching  of  Agriculture." 

STRAYER,  GEOROE  D.,  and  NORSWORTHY,  NAOMI:    "How  to  Teach." 

Twiss,  GEORGE  R.:    "Science  Teaching." 


CHAPTER  III 

HOW  TO  MANAGE  THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Agriculture  Teacher  as  Manager. — While  the  superintendent, 
the  principal,  the  parents  and  the  pupils  may  participate  to  some 
degree  in  formulating  or  in  executing  the  plans  for  management, 
the  teacher  is  the  most  important  factor  in  their  success.  The 
superintendent  or  principal  may,  with  the  counsel  and  advice  of 
his  teachers,  determine  the  main  features  of  the  policy  and  formu- 
late the  general  plans  for  their  maintenance,  but  upon  the  teacher 
rests  the  responsibility  for  developing  the  more  detailed  plans  and 
for  the  efficient  execution  of  both.  In  the  degree  to  which  the 
duties  of  the  teacher  of  agriculture  correspond  with  those  of  the 
other  teachers,  his  responsibilities  are  identical  with  theirs.  In  so 
far  as  they  differ  from  those  of  others  he  must  develop  plans  of 
his  own  and  be  responsibile  for  their  proper  execution.  Even  in 
these,  the  fundamental  principles  governing  his  relationship  to 
others  in  authority  are  not  changed. 

If  the  teacher  of  agriculture  is  the  teacher  of  a  one-room  coun- 
try school  she  is  largely  a  law  unto  herself  in  management,  subject 
only  to  the  statutes,  the  rules  of  local,  county,  and  state  boards 
of  education,  and  general  plans  made  by  the  county  or  district 
superintendent,  and  the  additional  plans  of  any  supervisors  work- 
ing under  his  direction.  When  stated  these  subjections  look 
formidable  but  in  actual  operation  they  usually  occupy  the  field 
of  administration  and  encroach  little  upon  management.  The 
rural  teacher,  however,  will  do  well  to  consult  fully  and  freely 
with  her  superintendent  and  supervisors,  since  they  are  usually 
persons  of  large  experience  and  superior  judgment. 

If  the  teacher  of  agriculture  is  in  charge  of  a  special  department 
of  work  in  a  town  or  city  system,  there  are  a  few  outstanding  fea- 
tures of  his  responsibilities  that  he  should  see  clearly  and  always 
observe  carefully  in  his. practice.  Among  these  are  the  following: 

That  there  can  be  but  one  executive  head  in  a  system  of  schools ; 
that  the  superintendent  is  by  custom  and  law  that  head;  that  no 
principal  of  a  school,  head  of  a  department,  or  teacher  is  expected 
to  divide  this  headship  with  him  (duumvirates  and  triumvirates 
were  long  ago  demonstrated  to  be  failures  in  administration);  that 
26 


AGRICULTURE  TEACHER  AS  MANAGER  27 

the  superintendent  is  the  person  chosen  by  the  board  to  bring  to 
their  attention  all  matters  relating  to  the  schools  upon  which  they 
should  be  informed  and  to  execute  within  the  schools  all  their 
decisions  which  they  have  a  legal  and  moral  right  to  make;  that 
loyalty  to  the  properly  exercised  authority  of  the  superintendent 
is  expected  of  every  teacher  (subject  to  the  dictates  of  his  conscience 
regarding  points  involving  moral  principles) ;  that  teachers  should 
express  their  opinions  freely,  fully,  and  forcefully  upon  any  pro- 
posed procedure,  but  a  course  of  action  honestly  decided  upon 
by  the  proper  authority  should  be  supported  wholeheartedly  and 
faithfully;  that  upon  invitation  of  the  superintendent  the  teacher 
should  be  ready  at  any  time  to  present  to  the  board  any  technical 
matters,  but  at  no  time  should  the  teacher  attempt  to  take  to  the 
board  or  members  thereof  by  "short  circuit"  any  official  business 
nor  encourage  members  of  the  board  to  bring  official  business  to 
the  teacher  without  first  presenting  it  to  the  superintendent  and 
obtaining  his  approval  of  the  procedure. 

Nothing  should  prevent  the  freest  conference  and  discussion 
between  the  teachers  and  members  of  the  board  upon  educational 
matters  of  common  interest,  but  contemplated  official  action 
should  pass  through  the  office  of  the  superintendent. 

If  there  be  a  principal  of  the  high  school  the  teacher  of  agri- 
culture should  find  out  early  what  administrative  or  managerial 
responsibilities  have  been  reposed  in  him  and  should  thereafter 
conform  to  the  plans  of  the  school  in  enabling  the  principal  to  bear 
these  responsibilities.  These  may  include  the  making  of  the 
daily  program  of  recitation  and  study,  the  general  behavior  of 
pupils,  the  movement  of  classes,  the  compiling  of  records  and 
reports,  and  in  the  larger  schools  may  extend  to  the  making  of 
curricula,  the  recommending  of  textbooks  and  the  classifying  and 
promoting  of  pupils. 

For  whatever  features  of  management  the  principal  has  been 
made  responsible  the  teacher  should  exercise  full  and  hearty  loyalty 
in  aiding  him  to  execute.  "Render  unto  Caesar  the  things  that 
are  Caesar's."  No  factor  contributes  more  to  the  success  of  a 
teacher's  class  management  than  the  general  management  of  a 
wise,  strong,  high  school  principal.  The  more  loyally  a  teacher 
supports  such  general  management  the  more  he  lightens  his  own 
burdens.  Make  your  best  knowledge  and  counsel  available  to 
him;  execute  his  plans  regarding  the  program  of  recitations,  passing 
of  classes,  making  of  records  and  reports,  attendance  and  general 


28      HOW  TO  MANAC'.K  THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

dejx>rtment  of  pupils,  with  tact  and  sincerity  and  promptness  and 
it  shall  l>o  bread  cast  upon  tho  waters. 

Relationship  to  Co-workers.  -The  teacher  of  agriculture  should 
maintain  the  most  cordial  relations  with  his  co-workers.  Helpful 
correlations  of  work  can  be  established  especially  with  the  teachers 
of  science,  English,  geography,  manual  training  and  home  eco- 
nomics by  means  of  which  the  work  in  all  these  departments  as 
well  as  in  his  own  may  lx>  greatly  improved.  His  vital  contact 
with  the  community,  his  apparent  freedom  of  action  and  frequently 
his  greater  compensation  should  not  be  allowed  to  cause  their 
feelings  to  degenerate  to  jealousy  but  should  be  utilized  to  arouse 
in  them  the  spirit  of  emulation.  He  may  be  able  to  aid  them  in 
discovering  means  of  more  vital  contact  of  their  subjects  with 
community  life  from  which  many  of  the  other  conditions  would 
follow  as  results. 

Professional  Attitude.— To  dispel  a  widespread  belief,  less 
warranted  by  the  facts  now  than  several  years  ago,  regarding  his 
lack  of  professional  preparation,  he  should  pay  strict  attention 
to  his  professional  duties  and  responsibilities  regardless  of  the 
heavy  demands  made  upon  his  time  by  the  practical  character  of 
his  work.  He  should  not  let  his  fellow  teachers  exceed  him  in 
zeal  for  professional  improvement  nor  in  attendance  upon  gather- 
ings for  this  purpose  nor  in  participation  in  the  proceedings. 

Relationship  to  State  Supervisor  of  Agriculture. — If  there  be  a 
state  supervisor  of  agriculture  work  the  teacher  of  agriculture 
should  promptly  familiarize  himself  with  the  supervisor's  plans, 
solicit  his  assistance  and  keep  him  informed  in  a  modest,  business- 
like way  of  what  is  being  done.  He  should  attend  all  conferences 
called  by  the  supervisor  when  possible  and  participate  generously 
in  the  improvement  of  the  work  in  the  state.  He  should  respond 
promptly,  fully,  and  accurately  to  all  requests  made?  by  the  super- 
visor for  information. 

Relationship  to  Community. — To  the  people  of  the  community 
the  teacher  of  agriculture  bears  a  peculiar  relation  in  that  besides 
l>eing  a  teacher  in  their  schools  he  is  considered  to  be  an  expert 
advisor  regarding  their  business.  Farmers,  business,  professional, 
and  non-professional  men  and  women  of  the  community  call  upon 
him  for  advice.  This  gives  him  a  wonderful  opportunity  to  co- 
ordinate home  and  shop  and  store  and  office  and  farm  and  school, 
which  are  more  fully  treated  in  a  later  chapter.  Here  it  may 
be  said  that  he  should  take  advantage  of  this  opportunity  to  the 


TEACHER  OF  AGRICULTURE  UNDER  SUPERVISION        29 

fullest  extent  possible  without  distracting  from  the  effectiveness 
of  his  work  in  the  school,  where  his  first  responsibility  lies.  He 
should  pay  special  attention  to  the  former  students  of  the  school 
agriculture  classes,  for  through  them  he  ought  to  develop  centers  of 
leadership  for  rural  improvement. 

Responsibility  to  Local  Press.— Few  teachers  of  agriculture 
appreciate  their  responsibility  to  the  press  and  through  it  to  the 
people.  The  press,  especially  the  "country  press,"  is  recently 
becoming  aroused  to  its  responsibility  regarding  agriculture  and 
country  life.  A  wide-awake  "country"  editor  would  prefer  an 
item  about  farmer  Jones  having  erected  a  silo  or  Smith  having 
produced  a  record-breaking  dairy  cow  or  Brown  having  utilized 


FIQ.    14. — These    hish  school  girls  are  takine  a  course  in  agriculture  to  prepare  themselves 
for  more  successful  work  as  teachers  in  the  rural  schools.     (A.  Z.  Arehart. ) 

successfully  a  certain  treatment  for  potato  scab  or  the  report  of 
the  annual  picnic  of  the  Lake  Pokegema  Fanners'  Club,  or  the 
results  of  the  seed-corn  tests  made  by  the  high  school  class  in  agri- 
culture, a  warning  to  farmers  about  the  quality  of  their  seed  for 
the  coming  year  than  the  news  that  Mrs.  De  Sanford  spent  the 
week-end  with  her  sister  in  Podunk  or  that  Mrs.  Oriole  had  bought 
a  new  piano  from  Stringem  and  Pound.  But  the  editor  is  not 
ubiquitous.  The  teacher  of  agriculture  and  his  pupils  can  render 
the  community  great  service  by  furnishing  through  the  local  paper 
matter  of  greatest  value  to  them  at  that  time.  (Chapter  XVIII). 
Teacher  of  Agriculture  under  Supervision. — The  teacher  of 
agriculture  may  play  a  double  role  in  the  field  of  supervision.  The 
superintendent  or  principal  who  is  responsible  for  the  success  of 
the  management  and  teaching  in  his  schools  ought  to  have  personal 


30       HOW  TO  MANAGE  THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

knowledge  of  the  success  of  the  teacher  of  agriculture  in  these 
regards.  To  obtain  this  he  should  make  personal  visits  to  observe 
the  work.  The  teacher  of  agriculture  should  welcome  these  visits 
and  also  the  criticisms  and  suggestions  arising  from  them.  The 
superintendent  may  know  little  about  the  science  of  agriculture 
or  the  art  of  farming  but  may  be  an  expert  in  school  manage- 
ment and  methods  of  teaching.  His  opinions  and  suggestions 
should  be  eagerly  and  cordially  sought,  and  carefully  and 
thoughtfully  considered. 

If  they  relate  to  activities  for  the  success  of  which  the  super- 
intendent or  principal  is  chiefly  responsible,  his  wishes  ought  to  be 
regarded  unless  something  in  the  teacher's  work  makes  it  prac- 
tically impossible.  If  they  relate  to  features  for  which  the  teacher 
is  responsible  they  ought  to  be  given  an  honest  trial  if  there  is  a 
greater  chance  of  succeeding  than  of  failing,  when  applied  to  the 
particular  conditions  with  which  the  teacher  has  to  deal.  When 
the  supervising  officer  is  present  the  class  work  should  move  for- 
ward in  a  perfectly  usual  and  normal  manner.  The  teacher  should 
assume  that  the  supervising  officer  has  come  in  his  official  capacity 
to  see  the  natural  working  of  the  school  and  not  as  a  parlor  visitor 
to  be  entertained.  A  good  supervisor  will  do  nothing  in  the  pres- 
ence of  pupils  that  even  hints  unfavorable  criticism.  In  a  later 
conference  between  supervisor  and  teacher,  full,  frank  discussion 
should  bring  out  features  commendable  as  well  as  those  having  a 
possibility  of  improvement.  "Bouquets"  as  well  as  "brick  bats" 
should  be  made  evident  by  supervisors.  The  teacher  should  not 
resent  criticism  nor  be  unduly  depressed  by  it.  If  it  is  just,  let  him 
appropriate  it  to  the  improvement  of  himself  and  his  work.  If 
it  is  unjust,  endeavor  calmly  but  frankly  to  demonstrate  it  to 
the  critic. 

The  Teacher  of  Agriculture  as  Supervisor.— If  the  teacher  of 
agriculture  has  charge  of  this  subject  in  nearby  rural  schools,  he 
then  becomes  the  supervisor  instead  of  the  supervised.  This 
double  relation  ought  to  keep  him  sane  and  sweet  in  both.  Not 
only  is  the  opportunity  but  also  the  motive  present  for  exemplify- 
ing the  golden  rule.  He  should  lay  out  the  course  of  work,  aid  in 
obtaining  materials,  and  give  the  teacher  such  help  in  the  subject 
matter  as  she  may  need  for  the  work  she  is  to  do.  If  he  is  to  teach 
all  of  the  lessons  himself,  she  will  need  instruction  on  how  to  aid 
the  children  from  lesson  to  lesson  and  how  to  have  them  prepare 
for  the  arrival  of  the  teacher  of  agriculture.  If  she  is  to  teach  the 


CLASS  MANAGEMENT  31 

class  each  day  of  the  week  excepting  the  one  on  which  the  special 
teacher  comes,  she  will  need  the  topics  to  be  studied  during  the 
week,  the  plan  of  class  work  and  the  actual  agricultural  knowledge 
(Fig.  14). 

The  day  the  agriculture  teacher  takes  the  class  he  can  review 
the  work,  clear  up  questionable  points,  make  the  general  assign- 
ments for  the  coming  week  and  arouse  the  minds  of  the  pupils  to 
prepare  for  it.  Unless  the  rural  teacher  is  specially  prepared  in 
agriculture  she  will  need  all  the  help  and  encouragement  and  honest 
praise  the  teacher  of  agriculture  can  give,  and  he  should  not  assume 
that  she  knows  he  is  thinking  these  comforting  things,  but  should 
tell  her  so  and  he  need  not  be  afraid  to  express  approval  of  the  work 
(when  it  can  be  truthfully  commended)  in  the  presence  of  the 
pupils.  So  far  as  we  know,  the  corpse  is  not  conscious  of  bouquets 
on  the  casket.  Better  present  them  when  their  fragrance  is  sweet 
to  the  soul. 

Class  Management  Must  Make  Good  Teaching  Possible.— 
Schools  exist  primarily  that  boys  and  girls  may  be  taught.  The 
center  of  teaching  is  the  class  session.  The  acme  of  educational 
activity  is  the  teaching  of  the  class.  Management,  besides  being  a 
process  of  training  pupils  in  social  responsibilities  and  behavior, 
is  a  means  of  enabling  teaching  to  attain  its  highest  efficiency. 
As  such  it  must  create  and  maintain  conditions  most  favorable  to 
the  teaching  and  learning  processes.  Since  attention  is  the  fore- 
mo.st  essential  to  these  processes  management  should  affirmatively 
do  those  things  that  promote  pupil  attention  and  negatively  pre- 
vent those  things  that  distract  it.  The  teacher  should  ask  ques- 
tions in  a  clear,  well-modulated  voice  only  loud  enough  to  be 
distinctly  heard  when  a  proper  degree  of  quiet  is  maintained ;  ques- 
tions should  be  asked  of  the  entire  class  to  keep  every  pupil  con- 
stantly participating  in  the  progress  of  the  thought  of  the  lesson; 
generally  the  asking  of  the  question  should  precede  the  designation 
of  the  pupil  who  is  to  reply;  questions  should  be  distributed  with 
good  judgment  among  the  members  of  the  class;  if  at  all  possible, 
every  pupil  should  be  given  an  opportunity  to  express  himself 
during  each  recitation;  the  train  of  thought  should  be  loaded  with 
things  worth  attending  to  and  should  move  rapidly  enough  to 
make  attention  necessary;  the  teacher  should  stand  at  a  point 
where  his  presence  helps  to  concentrate  attention;  teacher  and 
pupils  should  habituate  the  physical  attitude  of  respectful  atten- 
tion to  the  one  reciting;  the  pupil  who  recites  should  stand  (usually) 


32      HOW  TO  MANACK  THE  TEACH  I  NT,  OF  AGRICULTURE 

and  if  so,  in  an  erect,  well-poised  manner  so  the  other  members  of 
the  class  may  easily  concentrate  their  thoughts  upon  his  recitation. 
These  and  many  other  features  of  good  management  contribute 
affirmatively  toward  superior  attention. 

Management  may  also  assist  in  creating  conditions  favorable 
to  the  development  of  attention  by  preventing  certain  things. 
The  senses  of  the  pupils  should  not  be  assailed  by  persons  passing 
open  class-room  doors,  open  windows,  persons  talking  in  the  halls 
or  the  yard,  the  sputtering  of  a  radiator,  the  tapping  of  a  pencil, 
the  falling  of  books,  the  whispering  or  speaking  of  one  member  of 
the  class  to  another,  persons  entering  the  room  or  knocking  on 
the  d(K^r;  and  marking  every  recitation  of  each  pupil  in  the  class; 
the  lighting  and  heating  of  the  room  should  not  be  abnormal;  con- 
ditions that  make  the  orderly  pupil  anxious  to  set  things  aright, 
such  as  a  flapping  window  shade,  a  piece  of  apparatus  about  to 
fall,  the  sunlight  shining  in  the  eyes  of  another  pupil,  the  wind 
blowing  the  leaves  of  an  open  book,  should  be  unobtrusively 
adjusted,  and  preferably,  before  the  class  enters  the  room,  if 
possible.  Besides  other  disadvantages  of  such  things  they  dis- 
tract attention  of  pupils  and  are  evidences  of  poor  management. 
Any  pupil  worth  teaching  will  give  his  attention  to  something  and 
the  skilful  manager  will  so  plan  as  to  enable  him  to  give  it  to  the 
right  thing. 

Necessity  of  Good  Order. — Good  order  is  absolutely  necessary. 
Pupils  cannot  obtain  the  maximum  results  in  education  without  it. 
Lack  of  teaching  ability  is  harmful.  Lack  of  governing  ability  is 
disastrous.  More  teachers  fail  from  this  lack  than  from  all  others. 
It  is  the  sine  qua  non  for  success  in  the  school-room. 

The  fundamental  fact  that  the  natural  impulses  and  instincts 
of  individual  pupils  so  frequently  run  counter  to  the  needs  of  the 
group  or  class  makes  government  in  the  school-room  a  normal, 
perennial,  continuous,  ever-present  problem.  No  teacher  may 
pray  to  lx>  delivered  from  it,  no  pupil  may  hope  to  escape  it.  Wise 
teachers  and  pupils  will  therefore  cooperate  in  obtaining  the  maxi- 
mum of  lx>nefit  and  happiness  out  of  it  by  developing  good  govern- 
ment, which  is  a  blessing,  instead  of  permitting  bad  government, 
which  is  a  curse,  (lood  government  will  in  turn  result  in  good 
order  and  good  discipline. 

The  Teacher  Responsible. — The  teacher  is  not  only  responsible 
for  good  management,  but  he  is  also  responsible  for  good  govern- 
ment, good  order,  and  good  discipline. 


THE  TEACHER  RESPONSIBLE 


33 


Other  factors  morally  responsible  for  good  school  government, 
such  as  school  officers,  the  public,  patrons,  and  pupils,  to  the  full 
extent  of  their  powers  ought  to  maintain  good  government  in  the 
school,  but  the  teacher  must  do  so. 

Whether  pupils  cooperate  fully  in  some  form  of  pupil  govern- 
ment or  assume  the  most  violent  and  malignant  form  of  opposition 
to  good  order  and  good  government;  whether  patrons  render  the 
warmest  assistance  or  the  coolest  indifference  and  even  frigid 


Flo.    1.5. — A   Wisconsin  instructor  of  agriculture  visiting  a  student's   poultry  project  and 
examining  the  egt?  record.     (W.  C.  Christenson  and  S.  R.  S.,  I'.  8.  IX  A.) 

resistance;  whether  the  higher  administrative  officers  give  firm  and 
cordial  support  or  fade  away,  "side  step"  or  "stand  from  under" 
when  their  help  is  most  needed  and  fully  deserved;  still  the  teacher, 
by  law,  custom,  and  the  opinions  of  the  public  and  pupils,  is  ex- 
pected to  establish  and  maintain  good  government,  good  order, 
and  good  discipline. 

The  right  of  every  child  to  obtain  an  education  in  the  school 

must  be  protected  and  the  teacher  is  charged  with  the  duty  of 

protecting  that  right.     If  he  fails,  all  other  factors  are  practically 

helpless  and  the  child  is  defrauded  of  his  birthright.     In  the  per- 

3 


34      HOW  TO  MANAGE  THE  TEACHING  OF  AGRICULTURE 

forniance  of  this  duty  all  of  the  teacher's  mental,  moral,  and  if 
necessary,  his  physical  powers,  may  be  called  upon  to  serve,  limited 
only  by  the  laws  of  the  state,  the  rules  of  the  schools  and  the 
dictates  of  humanity.  While  in  schools  of  the  present  day  these 
limits  need  seldom  be  even  approached,  much  less  reached,  yet 
most  teachers  will  find  opportunity  to  utilize  all  the  tact,  skill, 
patience,  optimism,  self-control,  and  strength  of  mind  and  heart 
they  possess. 

A  Few  Words  to  the  Teacher  of  Agriculture. — There  are  several 
reasons  why  you  should  have  little  trouble  in  governing.  Your 
subject  is  usually  elective  and  you  have  not  the  perplexing  problem 
of  the  uninterested  pupil  who  is  in  the  class  because  it  is  a  required 
subject.  Your  subject  has  a  content  so  concrete  and  naturally 
so  attractive  that  the  pupil's  interest  supplemented  by  even  fairly 
good  management  and  moderately  skilful  teaching  ought  to  reduce 
disorder  to  the  minimum.  Your  home  project  work  makes  so  vital 
a  contact  with  life  interests  that  few  pupils  have  time  or  inclination 
for  mischief.  Your  visits  to  the  homes  enable  you  to  come  into 
contact  with  the  parents  on  a  constructive  basis  and  thus  assure 
their  support  and  cooperation.  You  can  also  study  the  pupil  in 
his  out-of-school  environment  and  be  thereby  the  better  enabled 
to  work  successfully  with  him  in  school  (Fig.  15).  The  purposive- 
ness  of  the  school  work,  your  ability  to  render  him  valuable  assist- 
ance in  the  thing  he  is  anxious  to  do  and  the  manlike  and  adult 
character  of  your  joint  enterprises  all  unite  to  impel  him  to  sensible, 
helpful  cooperation  so  valuable  in  promoting  good  government. 
If  you  make  a  proper  use  of  your  opportunities,  governing  your 
class  ought  to  be  the  least  of  your  troubles. 

EXERCISES  AND  QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  five  things  that  the  teacher  of  agriculture  may  want  to  have 
done  that  need  hoard  action,  but  which  are  to  be  presented  to  the  board  by 
the  superintendent.    Name  two,  in  behalf  of  which  the  superintendent  may 
want  the  agriculture  teacher  also  to  ap{>ear  before  the  board. 

2.  Name  throe  subjects  which  the  agriculture  teacher  and  the  superin- 
tendent should  discuss  fully  and  which  on  reaching  a  decision  the  superin- 
tendent should  place  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher  for  the  execution  of  the 
details  of  the  plan. 

3.  Name  five  things  which  the  agriculture  teacher  should  do  upon  his 
own  initiative  without  consulting  the  superintendent  or  principal. 

4.  Give  specific  instances  in  which  the  agriculture  teacher  can  furnish 
definite  aid  to  the  teacher  of  botany;  the  teacher  of  English;  to  the  teacher  of 
geography;  the  teacher  of  home  economics;  the  teacher  of  chemistry. 

").  Give  specific  ways  in  which  the  teachers  mentioned  in  Exercise  4  can 
help  the  teacher  of  agriculture. 


REFERENCES  35 

6.  Write  an  account  of  an  important  agricultural  event  and  take  it  to 
the  local  editor  for  criticism.     Rewrite  until  it  meets  his  approval.     From 
what  you  have  learned  write  other  articles  and  offer  them  for  publication. 
(Chapter  XVIII.) 

7.  Name  five  kinds  of  agricultural  matter  which  you  think  the  local 
paper  would  like  to  have.    Obtain  the  criticism  of  the  local  editor  upon  your  list. 

8.  State  five  subjects  from  which  you  think  it  advisable  to  select  if  asked 
by  a  farmers'  club  in  your  locality  to  "give  a  talk."    State  five  others  for  use 
before  a  town  business  men's  club. 

9.  Lay  out  a  plan  for  your  giving  one  lesson  a  week  in  a  country  school, 
the  teacher  of  the  school  to  conduct  the  lessons  you  arrange  for  her  on  the 
other  four  days. 

10.  Name  five  conditions  or  acts  that  might  prevail  in  a  class  in  agricul- 
ture ;  decide  whether  each  is  principally  concerned  with  management,  govern- 
ment, or  the  teaching  process  and  in  what  ways  it  affects  the  other  two. 

11.  Name  five  regulations  intended  to  produce  good   government  and 
decide  whether  they  contemplate  primarily  the  creating  of  favorable  conditions 
in  which  the  group  can  work  or   the  development  of   the  individual  pupil 
in  behavior. 

12.  Make  a  list  of  regulations  that  will  tend  to  do  both. 

13.  Examine  the  school  laws  and  decisions  of  your  state  and  see  how  many 
you  can  find  that  relate  to  the  behavior  of  the  pupil  at  school.    What  are  the 
provisions? 

14.  What  rules  regarding  pupil  behavior  have  been  enacted  by  the  school 
board  under  which  you  are  now  working  or  last  worked? 

15.  What  supplementary  rules  regarding  pupil  behavior  has  the  prin- 
cipal made? 

16.  What  additional  ones  has  the  teacher  made? 

REFERENCES 

BAGLEY,  WILLIAM  CHANDLER:    "Classroom  Management." 

BAGLEY,  WILLIAM  CHANDLER:    "School  Discipline." 

CHANCELLOR,  WILLIAM  ESTABROOK:   "Class  Teaching  and  Management." 

COLVIN,  STEPHEN  SHELDON:  "An  Introduction  to  High  School  Teaching." 

PERRY,  ARTHUR  C.,  JR.:    "Discipline  as  a  School  Problem." 

PERRY,  ARTHUR  C.,  JR.:    "The  Management  of  a  City  School." 

STOUT,  JOHN  E.:   "The  High  School." 


CHAPTER  IV 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Teacher's  Knowledge  of  Psychology  and  Agriculture  As- 
sumed.— The  necessity  of  knowing  the  three  M's — Mind,  Matter, 
Method,  is  as  great  for  the  teacher  as  is  that  of  knowing  the  three 
R's  for  the  pupil.  No  teacher  can  hope  to  reach  his  highest  degree 
of  efficiency  unless  he  knows  the  mind  of  the  pupil  and  how  it 
functions  in  learning,  the  subject  matter  of  the  curriculum  he  is  to 
teach,  and  the  proper  methods  by  means  of  which  the  subject  mat- 
ter is  used  to  educate  the  pupil. 

This  chapter  is  written  on  the  assumption  that  the  teacher  of 
agriculture  has  a  practical  working  knowledge  of  the  psychology  of 
education,  particularly  of  the  mental  processes  of  learning.  It  is 
assumed  that  sensation,  perception,  conception,  memory,  judg- 
ment, reasoning,  apperception,  attention,  interest,  habit,  imita- 
tion, emotion,  thinking,  will,  motivation,  association,  and  similar 
terms  relating  to  mental  processes  are  already  significant  to  him. 
Therefore,  no  special  treatment  will  be  accorded  them.  If  the  one 
who  desires  to  teach  is  not  familiar  with  them,  he  ought  to  study 
carefully  a  few  of  the  best  books  upon  the  subject,  some  of  which 
are  listed  in  the  references  at  the  close  of  this  chapter  and  referred 
to  by  number  at  the  close  of  this  topic.  It  is  also  assumed  that  he 
has  both  a  practical  and  a  scientific  knowledge  of  agriculture  of 
the  type  prevailing  in  the  region  in  which  the  teaching  is  to  be  done. 

(References1  at  close  of  chapter:  1,  12,  13,  18,  23,  24,  26,  29,  30, 
37,  45,  46,  47,  52.) 

Some  General  Considerations. — As  schools  are  organized  there 
are  three  more  or  less  distinct  steps  in  the  teaching  process:  The 
assignment  of  the  ''lesson,"  the  setting  of  the  task  for  the  pupils 
by  the  teacher;  the  preparation — study — of  the  lesson  by  the 
pupils  (and  by  the  teacher) ;  and  the  consideration  of  the  task  by 
the  teacher  and  the  pupils  together — a  joint  meeting — the  recita- 
tion. In  many  countries,  including  our  own,  the  recitation  has 
been  considered  to  be  much  more  important  than  the  other  two 
and  in  the  minds  of  many  persons  "methods  of  teaching"  are 
interpreted  to  be  methods  of  the  recitation.  Recently,  however, 

1  Numbers  at  the  end  of  each  topic  allude  to  references  at  close  of  chapter. 


INDUCTION  AND  DEDUCTION  37 

much  greater  consideration  has  been  given  to  the  value  of  proper 
assignments  and  even  more  thought  has  been  given  to  proper 
methods  of  study. 

Induction  and  deduction  are  modes  of  thought.  In  the  former, 
the  mind  from  its  familiarity  with  individual  or  specific  ideas  or 
notions,  proceeds  to  a  general  notion  or  truth  common  to  them  all. 
In  the  latter,  the  mind  accepting  a  general  truth  or  notion  proceeds 
to  the  application  of  it  to  specific  or  individual  notions.  In  brief, 
it  may  be  said  that  the  inductive  procedure  is  best  adapted  to 
teaching  the  young  pupil,  to  laboratory  work,  and  to  scientific 
discovery.  Its  procedure  is  largely  from  the  concrete  and  objective 
to  the  abstract  and  subjective.  Its  advantages  are  that  it  gives 
clearness  of  comprehension;  interest  in  the  learning  process;  con- 
fidence in  the  general  truth,  rules,  definitions,  principles  obtained; 
and  independence  of  future  action  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge. 
Its  disadvantages  are  that  it  consumes  much  time;  may  lead  to 
erroneous  conclusions  unless  well  guided  and  exhaustive;  and  is 
needless  and  wasteful  as  a  teaching  process  when  pupils  have 
already  in  their  past  experience  sufficiently  traversed  its  essential 
steps.  For  its  successful  use  in  school  it  requires  broad  and  deep 
knowledge  and  superior  skill  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  and  these 
are  not  always  present.  It  is  expensive  not  only  of  time,  but 
of  equipment. 

The  deductive  process  is  economical  of  time,  especially  with 
persons  whose  experiences  have  supplied  the  apperceptive  founda- 
tion for  a  comprehension  of  the  general  truth;  enables  one  to  take 
advantage  of  the  achievements  of  the  ages  and  hence  of  books, 
libraries,  and  other  storehouses  of  knowledge,  and  to  start  at  the 
point  where  the  scientists,  discoverers  and  scholars  have  stopped; 
and  is  the  natural  process  in  applying  to  the  practical  affairs  of 
life  the  discoveries  made  by  study.  In  schools  it  increases  the 
efficiency  of  the  poorly  informed  or  poorly  trained  teacher  by  sup- 
plementing her  teaching  with  textbooks  which  are  principally 
deductive  in  character.  It  is  economical  in  equipment  since  in 
most  of  the  school  studies  application  requires  less  expense  for 
equipment  than  does  discovery. 

Both  induction  and  deduction  are  essential  to  every  complete 
learning  process.  With  certain  types  of  pupils  or  subjects  or  lessons 
one  may  well  predominate  over  the  other,  but  there  are  few,  if 
any,  lessons  in  which  each  is  not  present  in.  some  degree  even 
though  the  pupil  or  teacher  may  not  be  conscious  of  it. 


3  1 4V  i 


38  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

In  each  of  the  methods  mentioned  later  these  two  processes 
will  l)e  found  to  be  present  in  varying  proportions  (1,  6,  8,  12, 
13,  16,  23,  39,  44,  51). 

The  Formal  Steps. — The  followers  of  Herbart  in  Germany  and  in 
the  United  States  have  developed  a  standard  form  of  teaching  proced- 
ure called  in  this  country  the  "Five  Formal  Steps."  These  "steps" 
have  gained  general  recognition  and  acceptance  as  amplified  and  util- 
ized by  American  teachers  and  writers.  They  are  usually  designated 
as,  first,  preparation;  second,  presentation;  third,  comparison  (and 
abstraction);  fourth,  generalization;  fifth,  application. 

The  first  step  sets  before  the  pupil  the  problem  and  arouses  his 
apperceiving  masses  related  to  it.  It  consists  in  arousing  in  the 
minds  of  the  pupils  their  past  experiences  and  their  accumulation 
of  information  and  ideas  which  will  lead  to  an  interest  in  further 
knowledge,  to  a  comprehension  (apperception)  of  the  new  truths 
and  a  concentration  of  effort  toward  the  accomplishment  of  a 
definite  known  aim.  In  presentation,  new  facts,  or  experiences, 
or  ideas,  in  sufficient  quantity  and  of  sufficient  variety  and  compre- 
hensiveness are  brought  before  the  pupils  to  form  a  basis  for  the 
fourth  step.  Comparison  and  abstraction  consist  of  detecting  the 
characteristics  of  the  different  individual  facts  or  ideas,  and  their 
likenesses  and  unlikenesses  and  hence  the  relations  they  bear 
to  each  other.  Generalization  discovers  the  common  character- 
istics abstracted  in  the  third  step  and  states  the  finding  in  the 
form  of  a  general  truth  or  conclusion.  Definitions,  rules,  and  prin- 
ciples are  types  of  the  results  of  generalization.  In  the  fifth  step, 
application,  the  general  truth  evolved  through  the  first  four  steps, 
is  utilized  for  the  interpretation  of  specific,  individual  cases.2  The 
first  four  of  these  steps  are  distinctly  inductive  and  have  the  char- 
acteristics and  advantages  of  that  system  of  procedure.  The  fifth 
is  as  distinctively  deductive  with  all  that  is  implied  thereby.  A 
more  complete  explanation  of  this  step  will  be  made  under  the 
"Four  Formal  Steps"  later  in  this  topic. 

These  five  steps  (including  the  four  parts  of  the  fifth  step  men- 
tioned later)  are  necessary  to  a  complete  learning  unit  and  con- 
stitute the  inductive-deductive  process. 

The  various  "methods"  mentioned  later  will  be  found  to  place 
a  varying  amount  of  emphasis  upon  these  five  formal  steps  accord- 

*  For  more  complete  treatment  see  McMurry's  "General  Method"; 
Enrhart's  "Ty|>es  of  Teaching";  Hagley's  "Educative  Process";  Colgrove's 
"The  Teacher  and  the  School";  McMurrv's  "Method  of  the  Recitation." 


THE  ALIGNMENT  39 

ing  to  the  purpose  to  be  accomplished.  It  must  not  be  understood 
that  all  five  steps  are  taken  in  every  lesson.  A  teaching  unit  ful- 
filling the  five  formal  steps  might  cover  the  work  of  a  week  or  might 
occupy  half  a  recitation  period.  Neither  should  it  be  understood 
that  in  the  learning  process  the  five  steps  are  distinct  from  each 
other.  In  preparation  truths  may  be  presented  that  are  new  to 
some  pupils;  in  presentation  some  minds  are  constantly  making 
abstractions  and  comparisons  and  even  leaping  forward  to  general- 
izations or  even  going  farther  and  seeking  applications. 

While  much  has  been  written  upon  the  inductive  development 
lesson  and  the  five  formal  steps  (of  which  the  second,  third  and 
fourth  are  definitely  inductive) ,  less  has  been  done  for  the  deduc- 
tive procedure. 

Bagley  3  divides  the  deductive  development  lesson  into  four 
steps:  viz.  (1)  the  data;  (2)  the  principles;  (3)  the  inference;  (4) 
the  verification. 

In  suggesting  its  substitution  for  the  mere  "telling"  of  facts 
so  common  in  education  to-day  he  states  that  it  (1)  introduces 
organization;  (2)  gives  meaning  to  principles  previously  mastered; 
(3)  "supplies  a  motive  for  searching  out  empirical  evidence  and 
therefore  makes  intelligible  the  use  of  textbooks  and  source  ma- 
terials"; (4)  utilizes  the  "puzzle"  instinct;  (5)  reveals  the  need 
for  future  study;  (6)  amplifies  the  inductive  processes  (8,  10,  23, 
44,  51). 

The  Assignment. — Under  the  system  of  organizing  American 
educational  institutions,  it  is  assumed  that  the  teacher  and  the 
pupils  will  be  together  for  cooperative  work  at  regular  periods  of  a 
few  minutes  to  an  hour  or  two  every  day  or  once  every  few  days; 
that  the  teacher  announces  at  every  session  certain  work  for  the 
pupils  to  do  before  the  next  session;  that  the  interim  is  used  by  the 
pupil  in  preparation  for  his  part  in  the  next  joint  meeting  and  that 
likewise  the  teacher  in  the  same  time  makes  his  preparation  for 
the  same  occasion.  This  interim  task  set  for  the  pupil  is  the  assign- 
ment. Its  importance  is  sadly  underrated  by  most  teachers.  The 
fulness,  thoroughness,  and  systematic  character  of  the  study  during 
the  interim  and  the  richness  and  vitality  of  the  succeeding  meeting 
of  teacher  and  pupils  are  frequently  most  largely  determined  by  the 
quality  of  the  assignment.  Loss  of  time  in  study  and  recitation  is 
avoided  by  a  goodi assignment,  while  a  poor  one  may  cause  almost 
a  total  loss  of  both.  Besides  its  far-reaching  effect  upon  the  char- 

3  The  Educative  Process,  p.  305-315. 


40  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

acter  of  the  study  and  the  recitation,  a  superior  assignment  makes 
a  definite  contribution  to  the  good  government  of  the  school  by 
keeping  pupils  cheerful,  busy,  and  orderly.  Its  character  may 
vary  somewhat  according  to  the  anticipated  procedure  at  the  joint 
session  of  pupils  anil  teacher,  whether  it  is  to  be  a  lecture,  a  reci- 
tation, a  seminar,  a  quiz,  a  drill,  or  an  examination. 

However,  there  are  certain  characteristics  that  a  good  assign- 
ment should  possess  regardless  of  the  kind  of  work  that  is  to  follow. 
The  assignment  should  state  the  aim  or  purpose  to  be  accomplished. 
It  should  set  the  problem  clearly  before  the  pupil  and  should  arouse 
in  him  a  keen  desire  to  solve  it.  By  skilful  questioning,  it  should 
establish  vital  contact  in  the  mind  between  this  problem  and  all 
possible  related  experiences  of  his  own.  To  the  extent  to  which 
this  is  done  the  assignment  is  the  means  of  taking  the  first  of  the 
five  steps. 

The  assignment  should  be  clear  and  full.  The  pupil  should 
know  exactly  what  he  is  to  do.  The  use  of  the  assignment  is 
not  to  be  limited  to  the  textbook  type  of  study  and  recitation. 
Anything  the  pupil  is  to  do  as  preparation  for  the  next  class  meeting 
is  a  part  of  the  assignment.  It  may  be  to  study  a  portion  of  a  book, 
to  interview  certain  persons,  to  examine  certain  animals  or  plants, 
to  observe  certain  processes,  to  attain  by  practice  certain  skill, 
to  apply  certain  tests,  or  to  collect  and  bring  certain  articles. 
Whatever  it  is,  let  there  be  no  uncertainty  as  to  what  is  to  be  done. 

The  assignment  should  make  clear  the  manner  in  which  the 
work  is  to  be  done  unless  the  finding  of  a  suitable  manner  is  the 
problem  involved.  Suggestions  as  to  the  mode  of  attack  are  often 
permissible  and  valuable.  Difficulties  which  the  pupil  cannot  sur- 
mount without  an  expenditure  of  time  and  effort  out  of  all  propor- 
tion to  the  benefit  received  should  be  cleared  up  sufficiently  to 
enable  him  to  utilize  his  time  to  the  best  advantage. 

If  references  or  sources  are  to  be  consulted  by  the  pupil,  they 
should  be  given  specifically — page  or  chapter — if  necessary  to 
avoid  loss  of  the  pupil's  time.  Besides  the  general  assignment  to 
the  group,  assignments  may  be  made  to  individual  students.  This 
is  particularly  desirable  if  the  pupil  is  capable  of  more  work  than 
the  others,  is  especially  interested  in  a  particular  topic,  or  has 
special  facilities  for  accomplishing  a  particular  assignment. 

Under  certain  circumstances,  especially  where  the  assignment 
contains  technical  details  and  is  long,  it  is  well  for  the  teacher  to 
furnish  to  the  pupils  duplicated  copies  of  these  details.  This 


STUDY  41 

should  not  release  the  teacher  from  vitalizing  the  assignment  with 
the  means  above  mentioned.  When  the  assignment  is  too  detailed 
to  be  easily  remembered  but  not  sufficiently  so  to  demand  dupli- 
cated copies,  the  pupils  should  be  required  to  make  the  notes 
necessary  to  insure  good  preparation. 

The  teacher  should  make  as  careful  preparation  for  his  assign- 
ment as  for  his  recitation.  Thorough  preparation  for  the  assign- 
ment is  time  saved  on  preparing  for  the  recitation.  He  should 
know  his  pupils,  their  capabilities,  their  interests  and  their  home 
facilities  (if  any  home  work  is  to  be  done  and,  of  course,  there 
will  be  in  agriculture);  he  should  know  the  aim  not  only  of  agri- 
culture but  of  each  topic  to  be  taught;  he  should  know  the  refer- 
ences available  and  their  relative  merit  for  that  specific  assignment ; 
and  he  should  know  the  more  important  and  less  important  fea- 
tures of  the  particular  problem  under  consideration. 

When  shall  the  assignment  be  made  and  how  much  time  shall 
be  taken?  Assignment  at  the  beginning  of  a  class  session  for  the 
succeeding  meeting  of  the  class  has  the  advantage  of  insuring 
plenty  of  time  for  the  assignment  and  avoids  breaking  into  the 
continuity  of  the  class  session,  but  unless  the  succeeding  lesson 
has  no  connection  with  the  present  one  there  is  danger  that  the 
assignment  will  need  to  be  changed  because  of  developments  aris- 
ing from  the  present  lesson.  If  the  lessons  have  a  pedagogical  or 
logical  sequence  it  is  better  to  estimate  carefully  the  amount  of 
time  that  will  be  required  and  close  the  class  period  soon  enough 
to  make  the  assignment  fully.  Take  plenty  of  time.  Remember 
that  the  assignment  of  the  lesson  and  the  study  of  that  lesson  by 
the  pupils  cover  usually  the  first  of  the  formal  steps,  usually  most 
of  the  second  formal  step,  and  frequently  parts  of  the  third,  fourth, 
and  fifth  steps.  When  to  this  is  added  the  effect  of  the  assignment 
upon  the  study  and  the  next  class  meeting  it  will  be  seen  that  when 
the  assignment  is  well  made  the  learning  is  well  on  its  way  (2,  3, 
5,  8,  9,  10,  13,  14,  16,  49). 

Study. — {icnerically  "study"  has  several  meanings,  some  of 
which  are  highly  technical.  Herein  it  is  applied  to  the  activities 
of  the  pupil  upon  the  assignment  in  making  ready  for  the  next 
meeting  of  the  class.  This  view  does  not  limit  it  to  the  use  of  books. 
If  the  class  meets  to  hear  a  lecture  from  the  teacher,  the  study 
may  be  of  references  given  that  will  prepare  for  a  better  compre- 
hension of  the  lecture.  If  the  work  is  in  the  laboratory  it  may  be 
the  performance  of  an  experiment  or  demonstration  of  field  work 


42  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

in  preparation  therefor.  As  pointed  out  under  "assignment"  it 
may  be  any  one  of  a  variety  of  tasks. 

In  the  public  schools,  where  the  laboratory  and  lecture  methods 
are  less  used  than  in  the  college  and  where  the  pupils  usually  use 
books  for  study  and  pursue  their  study  with  little  or  no  aid  from 
the  teacher  beyond  that  given  at  the  time  of  the  assignment,  the 
study  period  is  of  great  importance.  Upon  it  the  pupil  depends 
for  much  of  his  education.  The  value  of  the  class  meeting  later 
is  contingent  upon  it.  The  ability  of  the  student  to  become  inde- 
pendent and  self-helpful  depends  upon  his  developing  right  ideals, 
plans,  and  habits  of  study.  His  tendency  and  capability  of  con- 
tinuing his  studiousness  after  leaving  school  depend  more  upon 
the  power  and  habits  of  study  he  has  developed  than  upon  any 
other  one  school  acquisition.  Such  habits  must  be  so  fixed  as  to 
become  a  part  of  his  life. 

It  is  a  test  of  both  the  assignment  made  and  the  recitation 
anticipated.  If  pupils  arc  keenly  attentive,  purposefully,  happily, 
and  diligently  working,  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  an  assignment  is 
well  made  and  that  they  are  looking  forward  to  a  class  session 
that  is  to  be  well  conducted.  It  is  a  time-saver,  especially  in  the 
process  of  acquisition  which  our  crowded  school  conditions  with 
little  of  the  teacher's  time  available  for  each  pupil  demand  that 
we  utilize  to  the  best  advantage.  Fortunately  our  superior  text- 
books, reference  materials,  and  laboratories  make  this  possible. 
To  use  this  period  properly  every  teacher  should  know  how  to  teach 
pupils  to  study. 

Teaching  How  to  Study. — Space  permits  only  a  brief  treatment 
here.  For  more  complete  information  the  teacher  is  referred  to 
the  references  at  the  close  of  this  topic  and  particularly  at  the 
foot  of  this  page." 

The  psychology  of  study,  well  treated  in  these  references,  must 
conform,  of  course,  to  the  natural  processes  of  learning.  The 
teacher  must  make  these  processes  possible.  He  must  see  that 
the  physical  surroundings  of  the  studying  pupils  are  helpful;  that 
his  management  contributes  quiet  and  orderliness;  and  that  the 
assignment  was  properly  made,  furnishing  a  well-defined  aim, 
necessary  references  and  directions,  a  motive,  and  a  general  plan 
of  attack. 

4  See  especially,  Earhart's  "Typos  of  Teaching";  Strayer's  and  Nors- 
worthy's  "How  to  Teach";  Oolgrove's  "The  Teacher  and  the  School";  Hall- 
Quest's  "Supervised  Study";  NfcMurry's  "How  to  Study." 


THE  TEACHER'S  PREPARATION  43 

To  these  he  must  add  definite  training  of  the  pupils  in  study 
procedure  and  habits.  These  will  vary  somewhat  according  to 
the  degree  of  advancement  of  the  student,  the  character  of  the 
subject  matter,  the  manner  of  conducting  the  class  meetings, 
whether  the  pupil  is  to  study  at  home  or  at  school,  in  the  school- 
room, the  library,  the  laboratory,  or  the  field,  whether  his  study 
is  to  be  supervised  or  unsupervised. 

Regardless  of  these  variations  there  are  some  fundamentals 
that  are  essential.  There  should  be  a  plan.  This  plan  should 
require  a  problem,  interest,  attention,  and  concentration,  available 
data,  a  careful  analysis  of  data,  thoughtful  consideration  of  the 
relations,  deliberate  drawing  of  conclusions,  such  verification  and 
application  of  the  findings  as  the  particular  conditions  may  require 
and  sufficient  intelligent  repetition  to  make  possible  retention  and 
recall  for  future  use.  It  may  also  require  some  suggestion  from 
the  teacher  if  the  pupil  is  to  present  it  to  the  class. 

During  the  working  out  of  this  plan  the  teacher  may  well  give 
definite  instructions,  aid,  and  practice  in  such  steps  as  consulting 
references,  making  outlines,  taking  notes,  formulating  conclusions, 
cultivating  attention,  and  efficient  modes  of  memorizing. 

Supervised  Study.— It  is  not  enough  that  the  teacher  tell  pupils 
how  to  study.  He  must  work  with  them  until  the  process  is  thor- 
oughly understood  and  then  require  its  performance  until  it  be- 
comes a  habit.  When  a  new  mode  of  study  is  demanded  by  new 
conditions  he  should  prepare  them  for  it  in  the  same  way.  It  seems 
like  a  great  consumption  of  time,  which  it  is,  but  it  means  much 
time  saved  ultimately  both  for  pupil  and  teacher.  For  this  duty 
the  teacher  should  prepare  himself  as  carefully  as  for  his  class  teach- 
ing. With  the  large  amount  of  literature  on  this  subject  available, 
there  is  no  good  reason  why  every  teacher  should  not  prepare 
himself  (2,  6,  10,  11,  13,  14,  15,  16,'  19,  24,  29,  39,  40,  44,  45). 

The  Teacher's  Preparation — Lesson  Plans. — The  teacher 
should  have  a  thorough  knowledge,  which  he  obtained  as  a  student, 
of  the  subject  in  general  and  of  the  particular  portion  of  it  he  is 
to  teach  in  a  given  class  meeting.  But  this  is  not  enough.  He 
must  have  a  knowledge  of  it  from  the  point  of  view  of  one  who  is 
to  teach  it  to  others,  which  is  different.  He  must  rearrange  his 
knowledge  of  subject  matter  and  must  have  a  definite  teaching 
plan.  This  is  especially  needful  if  his  student  knowledge  was 
received  in  lecture  form  at  college  and  he  is  to  teach  it  to  non- 
collegiate  pupils. 


44  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

In  reorganizing  his  knowledge  he  must  choose  those  portions 
most  important  for  this  particular  class  to  learn,  arrange  them  in 
the  order  Ixxst  adapted  to  their  psychology  of  learning,  group  them 
into  teaching  units,  and  keep  his  knowledge  up  to  date.  This  done, 
he  should  prepare  his  plan  of  conducting  the  class  work  on 
each  unit. 

The  lesson  plan  for  any  given  unit  should  be  thoroughly  worked 
over  and  written  before  the  assignment  is  made  to  the  pupils,  for 
the  pupils'  preparation  and  the  teacher's  preparation  for  any  given 
class  meeting  ought  to  harmonize  in  plan.  Teaching  is  so  complex, 
there  are  so  many  byways,  inviting  to  both  teacher  and  pupils, 
there  is  so  much  to  be  taught  in  so  short  a  time,  and  confusion  is 
so  easily  created,  that  a  definite  aim  and  a  definite  plan  for  reaching 
it  are  essential.  This  aim  and  the  details  of  its  working  out  constitute 
a  lesson  plan.  In  addition  to  the  values  mentioned  such  a  plan 
contributes  to  clearness  of  comprehension,  to  ease  of  retention  and 
recall,  and  to  orderly  habits  of  study  on  the  part  of  the  pupils. 

What  shall  such  a  plan  contain?  Since  it  must  be  in  harmony 
with  the  learning  process  it  must  deal  with  matter  and  method. 
Most  teachers  provide  two  adjacent  columns  or  pages  in  the 
written  form  with  the  subject  matter  on  the  left  and  the  method 
on  the  right.5 

The  subject  matter  column  or  page  contains  a  brief  sequential 
outline  of  the  facts  to  be  considered  with  important  references  to 
sources  the  pupils  are  to  use.  The  method  column  contains  an 
outline  of  the  teacher's  aims,  the  pupils'  aim,  directions,  and  the 
outstanding  questions  to  be  used  by  the  teacher  in  conducting  the 
recitation,  and  reference  lists  of  materials  to  use.  The  material 
is  so  distributed  in  the  columns  as  to  bring  the  proper  subject- 
matter  topic  horizontally  opposite  the  appropriate  method  topic. 
Relative  importance  and  relationship  of  topics  are  shown  by 
indentations.  The  sequence  of  the  methods  column  is  that  of  the 
formal  steps  or  such  portion  of  them  as  is  needed  for  this  particular 
lesson.  The  plan  closes  with  the  assignment  for  future  work. 

Such  a  plan  should  be  made  out  in  sufficient  detail  to  show 
clearly  just  what  the  teacher  means  to  do  and  how  he  means  to  do 
it,  and  also  what  the  pupils  are  to  do,  and  how  they  are  to  do  it. 
If  review  is  necessary  at  the  beginning  either  to  strengthen  the 
pupils'  grasp  on  former  lessons  or  to  arouse  their  "  apperceiving 

*  See  Strnver,  "The  Teaching  Process,"  p.  173;  Earhart,  "Types  of 
Teaching,"  p.  237;  McMurry,  "Method  of  the  Recitation,"  p.  329. 


CLASS  MEETING  45 

masses"  for  the  second  of  the  formal  steps  it  should  he  included. 
If  drill  is  necessary  to  acquire  facility  or  to  fix  for  future  use  it 
should  be  included  also.  Whether  the  aim  is  knowledge,  skill, 
appreciation,  or  something  else,  the  lesson  should  be  properly  out- 
lined. If  there  are  aims  subordinate  to  the  main  aim  they  should 
be  included.  Most  plans  provide  for  advance  work  only,  but  if 
testing  or  review  be  a  part  of  the  recitation  they  should  be  pro- 
vided for  also.  Like  provision  should  be  made  for  summarizing 
when  that  is  desirable. 

The  extent  to  which  the  plans  shall  go  into  detail  will  vary. 
Inexperienced  teachers  should  write  theirs  out  fully  and  have  them 
rigidly  criticised  until  they  have  developed  a  good  technique  in 
plan  making  and  until  thinking  out  their  work  in  that  form  becomes 
habitual.  As  they  grow  more  proficient,  the  plans  may  become 
correspondingly  briefer.  Ultimately  it  should  not  be  necessary 
for  an  experienced  teacher  to  commit  to  written  form  the  lesson 
plan  of  a  subject  with  which  he  is  familiar  but  the  time  should 
never  come  when  he  goes  before  his  pupils  without  having  carefully 
thought  out  his  plan  and  assembled  the  necessary  materials  to 
be  used.  Lesson  plans  once  written  should  be  carefully  preserved 
for  future  reference. 

A  few  general  comments  may  be  helpful.  Making  lesson  plans 
seems  very  laborious.  It  is,  but  there  is  a  rich  reward  for  the 
teacher  who  schools  himself  in  it  conscientiously,  and  even  richer 
ones  for  his  pupils.  See  that  the  aims  are  sufficiently  comprehen- 
sive, but  not  too  remote  and  intangible.  Interpose  immediate 
aims  if  the  general  aim  is  not  sufficiently  motivating.  The  type 
form  of  procedure  6  lends  itself  to  the  making  of  a  comprehensive 
lesson  plan  extending  over  days  or  weeks.  When  such  a  general 
plan  is  used,  specific  plans  should  be  provided  to  guide  each  day's 
work.  In  making  plans  the  pupil's  capabilities,  attainments, 
interests,  and  point  of  view  must  be  kept  in  mind.  The  plan  should 
contemplate  finishing  the  instructional  work  in  plenty  of  time  to 
avoid  the  assignment  being  crowded  and  consequently  inadequate 
(8,  10,  11,  14,  16,  26,  34,  44,  48). 

Class  Meeting. — Assignment  and  the  study  have  been  con- 
sidered. It  remains  to  consider  the  class  meeting.7  This  class 

"See  McMurry,  "Method  of  the  Recitation,"  p.  236. 

1  The  term  "class  meeting"  is  used  to  avoid  the  confusion  arising  from  the 
double  use  of  the  word  recitation,  its  generic  sense  meaning  any  gathering  of 
teacher  and  pupils  to  consider  a  lesson  and  its  specific  meaning  such  a  meeting 
conducted  in  a  "reciting"  manner. 


46  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

meeting  is  a  vital  complex  wherein  past  experiences  are  revivified, 
new  knowledge  introduced,  errors  corrected,  power  developed,  skill 
perfected,  plans  prepared,  and  emotions  and  aspirations  aroused. 
Learning  can  take  place  without  it  but  at  a  sacrifice  of  time  and 
effort  and  of  soundness  and  fullness. 

The  great  importance  pf  the  class  meeting  and  the  invention  of 
such  aids  as  printing,  and  school-room  and  laboratory  equipment 
have  given  rise  to  many  "methods"  of  procedure  during  this  class 
meeting,  the  most  common  of  which  every  teacher  should  know  and 
be  able  to  use,  and  to  which  we  shall  now  give  brief  consideration. 

The  Topical  Method. — In  this  the  pupil  tells  what  he  can  about 
a  given  topic.  The  topic  may  have  been  in  the  general  assignment,  or 
may  have  been  a  special  assignment  to  that  pupil,  or  proposed  by  the 
teacher  at  the  moment,  or  a  part  of  an  outline  placed  on  the  board  by 
the  teacher  or  a  pupil,  or  developed  by  the  class  during  the  meeting. 

It  is  less  direct  and  specific  than  the  question  and  answer 
method  as  usually  used.  It  requires  greater  ability  to  organize  and 
express  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  than  do  many  other  methods  and  is 
therefore  better  adapted  to  the  advanced  students  than  to  begin- 
ners, though  in  a  simple  form,  especially  in  narration,  it  may  be  used 
with  quite  young  children.  Among  advanced  students  it  cultivates 
reflection  and  expression  not  only  in  narration  and  description,  but 
in  exposition.  It  is  well  adapted  to  review  and  to  the  second  formal 
step,  the  presentation  of  new  knowledge. 

When  the  teacher  requires  it  to  be  full,  accurate,  well  organized, 
and  well  expressed,  especially  if  the  assignment  has  been  skilfully 
made,  it  overcomes  the  tendency  to  memorize  the  text  or  to  seek 
brief  specific  answers  to  problems  which  ought  to  receive  a  fuller 
treatment.  It  is  a  good  test  of  the  teacher's  assignment  and  of  the 
pupil's  extent  and  method  of  study.  It  is  a  preparation  for  the 
"written  lesson"  to  which  it  is  easily  adapted. 

It  is  a  good  form  of  class  exercise  when  the  assignment  has  been 
based  on  the  textbook,  reference  book,  laboratory,  or  excursions. 

To  reach  its  full  value  and  to  avoid  errors  and  misconceptions, 
a  brief  use  of  the  question  and  answer  method  should  follow  the 
topical  recitation,  the  questions  being  asked  freely  by  the  pupils  as 
well  as  by  the  teacher.  Intelligent,  constructive  criticism  of  the 
presentation  should  l>e  encouraged.  Every  teacher  should  labor  to 
develop  in  his  pupils  skill  in  organizing  their  knowledge  for  effective 
topical  presentation  through  his  assignment,  his  guiding  of  the 
pupils'  study,  and  his  conduct  of  the  class  meeting  (3,  4,  41). 


THE  QUESTION  AND  ANSWER  METHOD  47 

There  is  no  objection  to  using  textbooks  and  bulletins  in 
connection  with  the  assignments  of  topics.  If  certain  topics 
are  written  on  slips  of  paper  with  the  names  of  books  or  bulle- 
tins to  be  used  for  each  topic,  a  slip  may  be  handed  to  each 
member  of  the  class.  If  there  are  as  many  topics  as  there  are  stu- 
dents, so  much  the  better.  Each  student  now  knows  he  is  responsi- 
ble for  his  own  topic  and  he  feels  that  when  he  recites  he  will  IKJ 
presenting  a  topic  which  will  not  be  old  to  the  other  members  of 
the  class. 

In  making  the  assignment  of  topics  to  individual  students, 
it  may  be  well  to  let  each  student  take  down  his  topic  in  the 
hearing  of  the  rest  of  the  students  so  that  all  will  know  what 
topics  are  assigned.  This  plan  of  assigning  will  take  more  time 
of  the  class  than  if  slips  are  written  in  advance  and  handed  to 
the  students  individually. 

If  there  are  more  students  than  topics,  some  of  the  topics  may 
be  subdivided  but  even  when  they  are  subdivided  there  may  still 
be  enough  students  so  that  each  topic  may  be  assigned  to  two  mem- 
bers. A  double  assignment  of  each  topic  allows  for  competition 
between  two  students.  The  adroit  teacher  will  see  the  advantage 
of  assigning  a  good  and  a  poor  student  the  same  topic.  The  teacher 
may  write  each  topic  on  two  or  three  slips  and  thus  avoid  students 
knowing  what  others  have  the  same  topic.  The  instructor,  of 
course,  should  keep  a  memorandum  of  what  topics  are  assigned  and 
to  whom  the  assignments  are  made. 

Reciting  Topics. — The  teacher  must  know  the  best  arrangement 
of  the  topics  to  be  recited.  He  should  also  know  what  students  are 
most  likely  to  fail,  or  partially  fail,  in  the  assignment  made.  When 
it  is  found  one  student  has  failed  to  cover  his  topic  well,  it  may  be 
advisable  to  have  another  student  report  more  fully.  In  case  no 
other  student  has  been  assigned  the  topic,  a  reassignment  may  be 
necessary.  Sometimes  reassignments  may  be  made  under  related 
headings  so  adroitly  that  the  members  of  the  class  and  the  failing 
student  do  not  know  that  it  is  a  reassignment.  Often  new  phases 
are  suggested  by  the  research  of  the  student.  These  will  usually 
call  for  additional  assignments. 

The  Question  and  Answer  Method. — The  question  is  the  uni- 
versal condition  precedent  to  learning.  A  question — a  problem — 
"wanting  to  know" — have  in  all  ages  prompted  the  infant  to  reach 
for  the  colored  ball,  the  chemist  to  mix  the  ingredients,  the  explorer 
to  scale  mountains.  Asking  questions  of  others  is  equally  universal. 


48  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

The  inquisitive  child  at  home,  the  lawyer  in  court,  the  traveler  on 
his  way,  the  farmer  in  his  field,  the  doctor  in  the  sick-room,  the 
teacher  in  his  school — all  are  depending  upon  their  ability  to  ask 
questions  of  people  or  of  nature  and  to  interpret  the  replies. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  the  question  and  answer  method  should 
be  used  more  universally  than  any  other.  Though  often  abused  it 
lends  itself,  when  properly  employed,  to  the  accomplishment  of 
more  of  the  different  ends  of  the  class  meeting  than  does  any  other 
one  method.  In  accomplishing  the  three  great  aims  of  the  class 
meeting,  testing,  teaching,  and  training  (drilling),  the  "three  TV, 
it  is  found  about  as  valuable  in  one  as  in  the  others.  Clear-cut, 
well-directed  questions  test  the  pupil's  preparation  and  his  present 
knowledge  and  disclose  his  errors  and  weaknesses,  as  well  as  test 
the  teacher's  success  in  teaching  him.  They  arouse  past  experiences 
for  use  in  present  learning,  and  elicit  new  information  to  be  incor- 
porated with  it.  They  provoke  thinking  to  the  end  that  new  and 
general  truths  are  found.  They  lead  to  the  utilization  of  these 
truths  in  solving  the  most  important  problems  of  life.  They  prompt 
the  intelligent  and  persistent  repetition  which  stores  away  principles 
and  processes  where  easy  and  accurate  recall  makes  them  avail- 
able for  future  use.  There  is  no  type  of  learning  in  which  the  ques- 
tion, expressed  or  implied,  is  not  found.  Its  gamut  of  application 
is  large.  It  can  be  adapted  to  the  babe  in  arms,  the  unlettered  man 
on  the  street,  or  the  philosopher  in  his  study.  It  may  require  for 
answer  only  a  single  word,  requiring  practically  no  effort,  or  it  may 
have  occupied  the  thoughts  of  the  sages  of  all  ages  and  still  be 
apparently  as  far  from  being  answered  as  when  the  world  began. 

Is  it  any  wonder  that  an  instrument  of  such  marvelous  pos- 
sibilities requires  a  skilful  manipulation  or  that  it  sometimes  goes 
wrong  for  lack  of  it? 

As  usually  conducted,  the  teacher  asks  the  questions  and  the 
pupil  answers  them,  though  in  well-conducted  class  work  the  pupils 
are  free  to  ask  questions.  This  method  enables  the  teacher  to  direct 
the  development  of  a  subject  along  its  most  valuable  paths,  pre- 
vents monopoly  by  individual  students,  and  is  well  adapted  to  those 
assignments  dependent  upon  books,  laboratories,  and  excursions 
for  their  preparation.  It  is  of  special  value  in  the  teaching  process, 
particularly  in  the  first  formal  step.  Among  dangers  in  its  use  are 
that  it  will  result  in  fragmentary  study,  thought,  and  expression, 
and  that  the  teacher  will  rely  upon  it  when  other  methods  would 
produce  better  educational  results. 


AMONG  THE  QUESTION  AND  ANSWER  METHOD          49 

Skilful  questioning  is  a  real  art,  an  effective  means  of  teaching, 
and  a  strong  influence  for  good  order  and  good  government.  Poor 
questioning  is  all  too  common  and  is  responsible  for  much  loss  of 
interest,  wandering  of  attention,  poor  preparation  of  lessons  and 
even  outright  misbehavior  in  class.  With  so  much  at  stake,  every 
teacher  should  study  to  perfect  himself  in  the  art  of  questioning. 
The  following  suggestions  may  be  helpful : 

Inform,  questions  should  not  slavishly  follow  the  text  either 
in  language  or  sequence.  The  question  should  not  contain  the 
thinking  which  the  pupil  ought  to  do  in  answering  it.  A  mere  fact 
question  may  sometimes  be  justifiable  but  should  not  be  used 
when  a  question  can  be  substituted  for  it  which  not  only  requires 
a  knowledge  of  the  fact,  but  also  of  its  relation  to  some  other  fact 
or  to  a  principle. 

The  proper  sequence  of  the  recitation  should  be  determined 
when  the  lesson  plan  is  made  and  the  questions  should  mainly  fol- 
low this  sequence.  A  "  Yes"  or  " No"  question  is  permissible  when 
careful  thinking  is  required  to  answer  it  correctly. 

In  construction  and  diction  the  question  should  be  the  best 
possible  formulation  of  the  inquiry  made  and  should  be  so  definite 
and  clear  that  a  properly  prepared  pupil  of  the  class  to  whom  it  is 
addressed  can  have  no  possible  doubt  of  its  meaning.  Such  ques- 
tions need  no  second  formulating.  Keep  the  number  of  fact  ques- 
tions small  in  comparison  with  the  number  of  thought  questions. 
Ask  few  questions  and  make  them  vital.  Make  the  questions  as 
attractive  and  thought-provoking  as  possible.  Sometimes  a  ques- 
tion that  even  startles  the  class  is  permissible.  Avoid  questions 
that  lead  to  "snap  judgment"  or  guessing.  Remember  that  the 
character  of  to-day's  question  reaches  forward  and  determines 
largely  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  the  character  of  tomorrow 's  study. 

In  conducting  the  questioning,  see  that  the  questions  are  asked 
in  a  voice  only  so  loud  as  to  be  heard  when  good  order  prevails. 
Hold  the  entire  class  responsible  for  hearing  the  question.  Do  not 
repeat  the  question  unless  the  pupil  called  upon  was  not  responsible 
for  failing  to  hear.  For  a  difficult  lesson  it  is  well  to  write  out  the 
questions  before  bat  not  to  lean  upon  them  during  the  recitation. 
Ask  questions  of  the  entire  class  before  designating  the  pupil  who  is 
to  reply.  Distribute  questions  well  about  the  class.  Do  not  con- 
centrate on  the  bright  pupils.  Give  one  who  fails  another  ques- 
tion. Let  questions  follow  each  other  with  enough  briskness  to 
hold  attention,  but  give  due  care  to  the  needs  of  nervous  pupils  and 
4 


50  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

of  slow  ones.  Encourage  pupils  to  ask  questions,  not  only  when  one 
has  an  individual  desire  for  an  answer  but  permit  them  to  question 
the  class  under  proper  circumstances.  Sometimes  have  several 
pupils  answer  the  same  question  without  comment  on  the  teacher's 
part,  then  let  the  pupils  discuss  the  answers. 

While  giving  due  consideration  to  the  desire  of  certain  pupils 
for  answers  to  their  questions  leading  to  some  by-path,  do  not 
allow  the  class  to  be  led  astray  from  the  task  of  the  day.  Do  not 
permit  the  pupil  struggling  earnestly  with  an  answer  to  be  inter- 
rupted by  pupils  anxious  to  show  they  can  do  better.  Do  not 
interrupt  a  pupil  for  unimportant  corrections.  Encourage  the 
pupil  who  is  honestly  striving  to  reply,  if  there  is  a  fair  chance  of 
his  succeeding. 

Hold  pupils  responsible  for  replying  to  the  class  and  so  other 
pupils  can  hear  and  understand.  Hold  the  entire  class  responsible 
for  the  correctness  of  the  replies.  Usually  answers  should  be  in 
complete,  well-formed  sentences,  but  sometimes  when  fullness  of 
expression  is  less  needed  than  some  other  characteristic  and  when 
a  brief  answer  is  perfectly  clear  and  all  that  is  necessary,  brevity 
should  not  only  be  permitted  but  encouraged  and  sometimes  even 
requested.  In  some  forms  of  testing,  some  of  development,  and 
also  some  of  drill,  brevity  is  greatly  to  be  desired.  Where  the  search 
is  for  thought,  answering  in  the  language  of  the  book  is  undesirable. 
Vague  answers  are  no  more  to  be  permitted  than  vague  questions. 
Do  not  complain  of  honest  efforts  to  answer.  Do  not  give  the 
impression  that  answers  are  wholly  wrong  because  they  are  not  per- 
fect. Do  not  repeat  answers.  Pronounce  them  adequate  or  inade- 
quate and  proceed.  Utilize  in  every  possible  way  past  experiences 
of  the  class  in  answering  questions,  especially  in  a  practical  subject 
such  as  agriculture,  where  answers  based  on  experience  have  unusual 
values.  Even  this  may  be  carried  to  an  extreme  (3,  9, 10,  11,  42,  45). 

The  Laboratory  Method. — The  laboratory  method  is  of  the  in- 
ductive development  type  operated  under  special  conditions.  In  its 
usual  form,  the  individual  works  alone  under  the  supervision  of  the 
teacher  to  obtain  knowledge  new  to  himself  though  not  necessarily 
to  the  world,  or  to  make  real  what  for  him  has  been  only  the- 
oretical. He  usually  works  with  material  things  aided  by  specific 
apparatus.  It  is  usually  concerned  with  the  first  two  of  the  formal 
steps,  though  the  others  are  sometimes  included.  Its  most  striking 
characteristics  are  those  of  being  individual  and  inductive.  Because 
of  this  it  requires  ability  to  work  independently  and  with  a  certain 


THE  LABORATORY   METHOD  51 

degree  of  manipulatory  skill,  and  honce  it  is  adapted  to  the  ad- 
vanced grades  in  school,  though  simple  forms  of  object  teaching 
related  to  laboratory  work  arc  adapted  to  the  lower  grades.  It 
promotes  careful  observation  and  reflective  thinking.  It  substitutes 
concrete  reality  for  abstract  symbolism,  a  step  for  which  there  is 
much  need  in  these  days  of  the  domination  of  the  printed  page.  It 
gives  objective  demonstration  of  a  subjective  principle  or  process. 
It  develops  keenness  of  observation,  confidence  in  the  soundness 
of  knowledge,  independence  in  habits  of  study,  manual  dexterity, 
and  a  mental  attitude  of  inquiry.  In  its  larger  uses  where  it  is  ex- 
tended to  practicums  and  practical  projects  like  those  in  agriculture, 
it  develops  the  necessary  motives,  knowledge,  and  skill  to  enable  the 
student  to  perform  successfully  the  practical  processes  of  the  art. 
Of  the  three  features  of  the  teaching-learning  process,  testing, 
teaching,  and  training,  the  testing  is  frequently  present,  though  the 
teaching  and  training  are  the  most  prominent. 

The  problem  to  be  solved  by  laboratory  work  should  not  be  a 
set  exercise  far  removed  from  the  lesson  plan  that  is  being  pursued 
but  should  be  a  natural  and  sequential  step  in  that  procedure.  It 
should  grow  out  of  the  major  problem  with  which  the  class  is 
dealing  and  of  which  it  is  an  essential  component.  Laboratory 
work  administered  in  any  other  way  cannot  make  its  largest  contri- 
bution to  education.  This  raises  a  permanent  and  unsurmountable 
objection  to  fixed  laboratory  days  with  the  fixed  "lecture"  or 
" recitation"  days  so  prevalent  in  our  college  administration.  This 
plan  is  all  too  common  in  our  high  schools  where  it  is  entirely  in- 
defensible as  a  teaching  process,  however  necessary  it  may  seem 
to  be  from  the  standpoint  of  administration.  Some  of  our  best 
high  schools  have  succeeded  in  overcoming  these  administrative 
difficulties  by  the  double  period  plan  for  all  such  studies.8  Further 
reference  will  be  made  to  this  under  topic  "Combination  Method" 
later  in  this  chapter. 

One  of  the  great  advantages  claimed  for  the  home  project  as  a 
basis  for  school  instruction  is  that  it  becomes  a  real  laboratory, 
maintaining  constantly  a  vital  connection  with  the  school  work. 
Such  a  claim  would  be  much  more  difficult  to  substantiate  for 
the  conventional  laboratory  exercises,  isolated,  fragmentary,  and 
unproductive  as  they  frequently  are.  Separated  from  the  on- 
flowing  stream  of  learning  they  become  mere  bayous  or  even  dis- 
connected pools. 

8  J.  Stanley  Brown  in  "School  and  Home  Education,"  February,  191c. 


52  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

The  laboratory  method  is,  of  necessity,  so  expensive  in  time  and 
money  that  every  effort  should  be  used  to  make  it  as  highly  pro- 
ductive as  possible  educationally.  Proceedings  should  be  carefully 
planned.  Operations  and  materials  should  be  ready  before  the 
work  is  to  start.  Things  already  known  or  that  arc  not  of  sufficient 
value  or  that  are  too  difficult  should  not  be  undertaken.  Notebooks 
should  Ix;  carefully  kept,  containing  the  problem  carefully  stated, 
the  materials  used, the  processes  {>erformed,and  the  results  obtained, 
with  significant  explanations  and  conclusions.  The  results  of 
the  lal>oratory  work  should  then  be  incorporated  into  the  general 
scheme  of  study  and  class  meetings.  The  laboratory  exercise  itself 
furnishes  little  opportunity  for  expression  in  language.  Laboratory 
work  and  materials  adapted  to  the  different  agricultural  topics  are 
mentioned  in  Chapters  V  to  XII,  inclusive,  devoted  to  those  topics. 

The  three  methods  already  discussed;  viz.,  the  topic,  the  ques- 
tion and  answer,  and  the  laboratory,  are  the  three  most  important 
methods  to  be  used  in  the  public  schools.  While  other  methods 
have  their  minor  values,  the  teacher  who  is  expert  in  the  use  of  these 
three  need  never  fail  for  want  of  effective  method  work  (4,  6,  16, 
21,  22,  31,  33,  34). 

The  lecture  method  in  its  extreme  form  proceeds  on  the  basis 
that  teaching  is  a  mere  telling  process  and  that  all  the  pupils  need 
to  do  is  to  think  the  thoughts  after  the  lecturer.  They  are  to  think 
his  thoughts  after  him  in  the  class  meeting  and  take  notes.  They 
are  to  think  his  thoughts  after  him  during  the  study  period  and 
study  their  notes.  They  are  to  think  his  thoughts  after  him  in 
the  examination  for  which  they  prepare  by  studying  their  notes. 

In  the  class  meeting  there  is  no  testing;  that.is  left  for  the  formal 
examination;  there  is  no  training  in  the  proper  use  of  the  term 
and  what  there  is  of  teaching  is  reduced  to  the  mere  process 
of  ''telling."  The  natural  processes  in  learning  are  assumed, 
not  performed.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  such  a  method  has 
no  place  in  the  public  schools,  either  high  schools  or  grades  or 
rural  schools. 

At  the  other  extreme  the  term  " lecture  method"  might  be  ap- 
plied to  any  step  in  the  educative  process  in  which  the  teacher 
"tells"  something  to  the  pupils.  In  this  sense  this  method  is  effec- 
tively used  daily  in  every  kind  of  school  with  every  iype  of  subject 
matter  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  university.  Between  these 
two  extremes  each  teacher  must  decide  for  himself  the  degree 
in  which  he  will  use  the  lecture  method  and  the  form  which  it 


THE  LECTURE  METHOD  53 

shall  take,  considering  his  pupils,  the  subject  matter,  and  the 
aids  available. 

In  the  college  and  university  the  extremely  rigid  and  barren 
form  first  mentioned  is  improved  by  references  for  further  study, 
quizzes,  laboratory  work,  discussions,  opportunities  for  questions 
and  outlines,  term  papers,  written  lessons  and  other  forms  of  student 
participation  and  real  teaching  processes.  Even  with  these  modi- 
fications and  accessories  the  set  lecture  is  not  justifiable  in  the  public 
schools  as  a  regular  method  of  teaching,  even  though  on  special 
occasions  it  might  be  justifiable  as  a  diversion.  It  is  defended  in 
college  on  the  grounds  that  no  books  are  available  with  exactly 
what  the  instructor  wants  and  in  just  the  form  in  which  he  wants 
it;  that  books  are  not  up  to  date;  that  books  are  not  adapted  to 
this  particular  class;  that  the  teacher  can  organize  better  than  the 
pupils  can;  and  that  it  saves  time. 

However  valid  these  claims  may  be  for  certain  subjects  in  certain 
colleges,  it  is  safe  to  assert  that  in  the  public  schools  the  objections 
to  the  formal  lecture  as  a  regular  method  of  teaching  far  outweigh 
its  possible  benefits.  It  utilizes  too  little  pupil  activity.  It  gives 
little  opportunity  for  collecting  and  organizing  information,  com- 
paring and  evaluating  it,  drawing  conclusions  from  it,  and  apply- 
ing these  to  practical  affairs.  It  concentrates  the  attention  upon 
note  taking  instead  of  upon  independent  and  constructive  think- 
ing. The  sources  of  information  are  not  available  later  for  con- 
templative perusal  and  study.  It  may  contain  material  ill-adapted 
to  the  pupil's  state  of  mind.  It  makes  no  provision  for  the  pupil's 
state  of  mind  as  aroused  by  some  step  in  the  teaching  process.  It 
violates  many  of  the  laws  of  learning.  It  is  a  poor  use  of  that 
vital  and  precious  period  of  the  meeting  of  pupils  and  teacher 
when  so  much  real  teaching  (instead  of  mere  telling)  could  be  done. 
It  has  been  aptly  characterized  as  a  lazy  man's  method,  since  it  is 
far  easier  to  "tell"  pupils  than  to  educate;  them  to  study,  to  work 
in  the  laboratory,  to  compare,  to  think,  to  express,  and  to  apply. 

The  informal  use  of  the  "  telling"  method  is  of  inestimable  value 
in  some  phases  of  public  school  work.  While  pupils  are  gaining  pos- 
session of  the  tools  of  learning  before  they  can  utilize  such  sources  of 
information  as  the  printed  page  and  the  laboratory  and  such  means 
of  expression  as  writing,  drawing,  and  other  forms  of  hand  activity, 
the  teacher  must  tell  much.  Even  throughout  the  school  course 
it  has  its  legitimate  uses.  The  teacher  by  talking  may  give  a  most 
animated  beginning  to  a  new  subject,  thus  inducing  the  pupils 


54  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

to  attack  the  problems  with  vigor.  He  may  supplement  the  best 
results  the  pupils  are  able  to  obtain  from  their  available  resources. 
He  may  amplify  topics  of  local  importance,  especially  in  agriculture 
and  the  sciences,  much  beyond  the  treatment  accorded  them  in  the 
texts  and  references.  He  may  explain  sets  of  slides  and  reflecto- 
scope  reproductions  and  thereby  give  them  added  significance.  He 
may  supply  the  connective  tissue  for  the  knowledge  obtained  from 
the  textlxx>k,  the  references,  the  laboratory,  and  the  field  observa- 
tions. He  may  utilize  correct  knowledge  not  otherwise  available. 
Not  all  things  can  be  "developed";  some  must  be  presented  direct 
to  the  pupil.  When  for  whatever  reasons  these  are  not  other- 
wist;  available  the  teacher  can  tell  them.  But  he  should  be 
careful  not  to  tell  them  what  they  can  advantageously  find  for 
themselves  and  which  they  would  enjoy  finding.  Neither  should 
he  tell  them  what  they  already  know.  If  any  one  is  to  tell  that  let 
the  pupil  do  it. 

College  trained  teachers  are  prone  to  lecture  in  the  high  school. 
Their  first  step  in  teaching  should  be  to  abandon  it  absolutely,  re- 
turning toward  (not  to}  it  only  as  they  can  trust  themselves  to  use 
it  in  a  sound  pedagogical  manner.  Let  them  remember  that  both 
expert  observation  and  stenographic  reports  show  very  plainly  that 
in  the  class-room  almost  universally  teachers  talk  too  much.9  It  will 
be  shown  later  that  the  four  methods  above  mentioned  properly 
combined  constitute  the  soundest  class  meeting  procedure  (3,  6, 
8,  11,  21,  22,  23,  31,  33). 

The  Problem  Method. — The  problem  method  in  its  simpler 
form  includes  the  transformation  of  an  unknown  quantity  or 
condition  or  factor  into  a  known  quantity  or  condition  or  factor 
through  the  aid  of  those  already  known,  such  as  making  known  the 
value  of  several  articles  when  the  value  of  one  and  the  number  of 
articles  are  known.  In  its  larger  forms,  especially  as  found  in  agri- 
culture, it  places  the  emphasis  upon  doing  something  and  is  devoted 
to  discovering  from  known  or  knowable  conditions  the  best  way  of 
doiiuj  that  thing,  as  how  to  repair  the  fence,  how  to  raise  a  corn  crop, 
how  to  make  a  profit  from  chicken  raising. 

It  is  not  so  much  a  method  of  teaching  as  it  is  a  system  of  organ- 
izing the  subject  matter  of  the  curriculum.  As  such  it  substitutes 
for  the  plan  of  cutting  the  subject  matter  up  into  small  and  more 
or  less  arbitrarily  determined  sections,  the  exact  length  of  each 
being  determined  by  the  length  of  one  day's  recitation  time,  the 
9  KOI  nic  tt  Stevens,  "The  Question  as  a  Measure  of  Efficiency  in  Instruction." 


THE  TEXTBOOK  METHOD  55 

large  problem  with  a  set  of  minor  problems  within  it,  all  of  which 
lead  forward  to  the  solution  of  the  major  problem. 

As  stated  in  the  topic  on  lesson  plans,  such  a  teaching  unit  might 
extend  over  the  class  work  of  a  week  or  month  or  even  a  longer 
period.  In  following  this  plan  of  curriculum  organization  any  or 
all  of  the  methods  of  teaching  (topical,  question,  laboratory,  and 
others)  maybe  used,  as  also  may  the  different  systems  of  class  man- 
agement. Induction  and  deduction,  the  five  formal  steps  of  the 
induction  development  procedure  and  also  the  four  steps  of  the 
deductive  development  will  be  employed  again  and  again  with  a 
constant  intermingling  of  the  various  steps  in  the  solution  of  the 
various  minor  problems.  In  agriculture  such  a  problem  (project) 
usually  covers  a  definite  unit  of  farm  operation. 

Because  of  the  study  looking  forward  to  action  and  because  of 
things  being  taught  in  connection  with  their  natural  surroundings 
and  relationships,  motivation,  interest,  attention  and  concentra- 
tion and  continuousness  of  effort  are  at  their  best. 

In  agriculture  such  a  problem  must  impress  the  student  as  sol- 
uble and  worth  (to  him)  solving.  It  must  be  broken  into  smaller 
problems,  for  each  of  which  data  are  collected;  reflective  thinking 
exercised;  hypothesis  proposed,  rejected  or  retained,  and  verified; 
and  a  plan  of  action  determined  upon.  In  agriculture  so  much  data 
is  available  that  careful  supervision  by  the  teacher  is  necessary  to 
prevent  waste,  discouragement,  and,  perhaps,  abandonment. 

The  home  project  is  a  form  of  the  problem  system  of  organiza- 
tion much  used  in  agriculture.  In  it  large  emphasis  is  placed  upon 
the  practical  and  skilful  performance  of  actual  farm  operations 
under  the  supervision  of  the  agriculture  teacher  of  the  school  and 
correlated  with  the  school  instruction.  It  is  dealt  with  more  fully 
in  Chapter  XIII  of  this  book.10  The  project  method  as  applied  to 
the  conventional  school  studies  has  been  treated  in  a  volume  by 
Dr.  Charles  A.  MeMurry  (see  references)  (8,  9,  28,  31,  33,  34,  43). 

Minor  Methods. — In  addition  to  the  foregoing  methods  there 
are  many  others  that  are  modifications  or  special  applications  of 
them.  Among  these  are  the  Textbook,  the  Socratic,  the  Heuristic, 
Conversational,  the  Trail  and  Error,  and  the  Field  Observation. 

The  textbook  method  is  not  so  much  a  method  as  the  lack 
of  a  method.  It  is  the  slavish  adherence  to  the  textbook  as  the 
source  of  information,  as  the  order  of  study,  and  as  the  sequence  of 

10Reo  also  Stimson,  "Vocational  Agricultural  Education  "  (Maomillnn); 
U.  S.  Bureauof  Education  Bulletin,  Report  of  Agriculture  Committee  of  N.  E.  A. 


56  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

recitation  in  violation  of  the  psychology  of  the  learning  process  and 
of  any  sound  lesson  plan  that  might  be  based  thereon.  It  ignores 
induction,  deduction,  the  five  formal  steps,  development  and 
practically  all  the  mental  processes  but  that  of  memory. 

Since  most  textbooks  are  logical  rather  than  pedagogical  in  their 
arrangement,  this  method  does  not  utilize  the  natural  motives  and 
methods  that  appeal  most  to  the  pupils.  As  most  textbooks  con- 
tain condensed  conclusions  reached  by  the  author,  they  present  to 
the  pupils  many  incomprehensible  and  unassimilable  generalizations 
for  which  the  method  off  el's  no  adequate  treatment.  Textbooks 
should  not  be  made  to  bear  the  blame  that  attaches  to  the  text- 
book method.  They  are  of  great  value  and  the  American  school 
would  lose  a  part  of  its  effectiveness  without  them.  With  a  proper 
method  of  teaching  they  are  a  great  source  of  strength.  They 
are  the  universal  source  of  information  which  is  usually  accurate 
and  well  expressed,  often  well  illustrated  and  easily  and  economi- 
cally available.  They  frequently  contain  problems,  exercises,  and 
suggestions  of  great  helpfulness.  They  "tell"  the  pupil  more 
and  better  things  than  could  the  average  teacher  and  usually  in  an 
economical  way,  and  do  it  while  the  teacher  is  busy  with  other 
things.  They  cultivate  in  the  pupil  the  habit  and  ability  of  study 
and  self -help  which  enable  him  to  continue  to  be  a  student  to  the  end 
of  life.  As  a  means  of  acquiring  information  and  of  developing 
skill  in  the  application  of  knowledge  they  are  invaluable.  But 
Ix'tween  these  two  lies  one  of  the  most  important  steps  in  teaching 
for  which  they  supply  no  method. 

Usually  the  teacher  who  leans  too  heavily  upon  the  textbook  uses 
in  the  class  meeting  the  least  desirable  forms  of  the  question  and 
answer  or  the  topical  methods  limiting  the  sequence  of  procedure  to 
that  of  the  text  and  testing  to  accuracy  in  memorizing  the  lan- 
guage used  therein  (10,  23,  49). 

The  trial  and  error  method,  which,  as  its  name  indicates, 
consists  of  trials,  the  abandonment  of  the  unsuccessful  or  ill-adapted 
and  the  adoption  of  the  successful  or  well-adapted.  Valuable  as  it 
has  been  in  the  evolution  of  the  animal  kingdom  and  the  human 
race,11  it  is  too  wasteful  of  time  and  energy  to  encourage  its  use 
as  one  of  the  methods  of  teaching  to  be  regularly  used  in  the 
public  schools. 

The  Socratic  method  is  a  form  of  the  question  and  answer 
method  in  which  the  teacher  takes  the  pupil  with  whatever 

11  "The  learning  Process,"  p.  lt'>. 


THE  FIELD  OBSERVATION  METHOD 


57 


knowledge  the  latter  may  possess  and  without  the  addition  of  any 
further  information  questions  the  pupil  until  he  arrives  at  the  new 
knowledge  desired.  It  is  long,  circuitous,  sometimes  tedious,  and 
usually  time  consuming.  It  is  better  adapted  to  individual  than 
to  class  instruction  and  should  not  be  allowed  to  consume  the 
valuable  time  of  the  group  of  students  for  the  sake  of  clarifying 
the  thought  of  one  student  or  the  pride  of  the  teacher  in  his 
Socratic  skill  (11). 

The  so-called  conversation  method  is  not  so  much  a  method 
of  teaching  as  a  type  of  class  management  in  which  freedom  of 
expression  and  of  questioning  is  allowed  the  pupils  in  the  develop- 


FIG.   16. — The  agriculture  teacher  at  the  Hutchinson,  Minnesota,  high  school  gave  his  animal- 
husbandry  class  practice  in  stock  judging  at  the  county  fair.      (J.  P.  Shea.) 

ment  of  the  lesson.  As  a  system  of  class  management  it  is  com- 
mendable when  well  conducted,  especially  in  the  first  and  second 
formal  steps  (34). 

The  field  observation  method  is  a  form  of  the  laboratory 
method  in  which  the  work  done  is  a  study  of  objects  or  conditions 
or  processes  instead  of  the  performance  of  an  experiment.  It  is 
of  great  use  in  all  science  subjects  and  absolutely  indispensable  in 
agriculture.  To  see  things  in  their  practical  and  natural  sur- 
roundings, to  utilize  the  Avealth  of  neighborhood  agricultural  equip- 
ment, crops,  stock  (Fig.  16),  soils,  buildings  and  equipment,  and 
the  actual  farm  operations,  to  compare  local  conditions  with  general 
standards,  to  objectify  and  vitalize  classroom  instruction,  to  unify 


58  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

home  and  school,  to  broaden  the  project  work  by  a  knowledge  of 
what  many  are  doing,  to  adapt  the  school  instruction  to  the  home 
conditions,  and  for  many  other  purposes  the  agricultural  teacher 
and  his  class  should  visit  neighboring  farms  as  a  regular  part  of 
school  work  (Fig.  17).  The  details  of  what  is  to  be  done  on  these 
trips  will  lie  found  in  the  Chapters  V  to  XII,  inclusive,  which  deal 
with  the  teaching  of  the  different  agricultural  topics.  It  may  be 
well,  however,  to  mention  here  a  few  of  the  general  regulatives  that 
should  be  observed  in  conducting  such  visits. 

The  lesson  plan  should  be  even  more  carefully  made  than  for  an 
exercise  in  the  classroom  because  the  management  conditions 
with  which  the  teacher  has  to  cope  are  much  more  difficult.  The 
teacher  and  the  pupils  should  have  a  definite  aim  and  also  well- 
defined  and  expressed  subordinate  aims.  Definite  written  instruc- 
tions should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils  containing  the 
plan  of  the  trip,  the  hours,  means,  and  purposes.  It  should  con- 
tain specific  instructions  of  what  to  see,  do,  and  record.  In 
some  cases  definite  questions  requiring  careful  observation  before 
answering  should  be  included.  A  clear  understanding  should  be 
given  of  how  the  results  are  to  be  recorded.  Before  putting  these 
into  the  hands  of  the  pupils  the  teacher  should  go  over  the  pro- 
posed trip  and  see  if  the  conditions  will  enable  his  pupils  to  do 
what  he  proposes  to  require  of  them.  He  should  then  meet  the 
pupils  in  the  classroom,  distribute  the  plans  and  see  that  they  are 
thoroughly  understood. 

On  the  trip  pupils  should  understand  that  it  is  not  a  holiday  but 
a  regular  assignment  of  school  work  to  be  done  in  the  best  possible 
manner.  They  should  be  kept  busy  and  orderly  (with  an  order 
adapted  to  the  type  of  work  performed).  They  should  be  so  super- 
vised as  to  use  plans  to  the  best  advantage.  Their  records  should 
be  carefully  inspected  and  at  a  succeeding  class  meeting  the  results 
of  the  trip  should  be  made  a  subject  of  systematic  consideration 
by  the  group  (22,  31). 

The  Heuristic  method12  is  simply  the  inductive  process  in  which 
special  stress  is  laid  upon  letting  each  pupil  find  out  for  himself 
without  the  guidance  and  assistance  offered  by  texts,  teachers, 
and  other  aids.  Properly  combined  with  inductive  development 
work  or  laboratory  work  in  which  guidance  and  sources  of  infor- 
mation are  used  advantageously  it  has  pedagogic  value.  Used 
as  an  exclusive  "method"  it  is  wasteful,  diffusive,  likely  to  lead 
12  Monroe,  "Cyclopedia  of  Education,"  vol.  3,  page  260. 


00  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

to  erroneous  conclusions,  to  unorganized  knowledge,  and  to  dis- 
couragement (30). 

The  written  lesson  is  merely  a  form  of  class  management  in 
which  the  pupil  writes  upon  a  given  topic  or  in  answer  to  certain 
questions  instead  of  reciting  orally  in  response  to  the  same  topics 
or  questions.  Its  value  like  that  of  the  topic  method  and  the? 
question  and  answer  method  depends  upon  the  choice  of  topics 
or  quastions  and  the  treatment  of  the  results.  If  results  are  given 
proper  consideration,  either  privately  or  in  class,  the  occasional  use 
of  such  a  lesson  has  definite  value.  To  give  a  written  lesson  simply 
to  relieve  the  teacher  from  conducting  the  recitation  and  not  to 
use  properly  the  results  are  both  poor  management  and  poor  teach- 
ing. Pupils  are  seldom  deceived.  The  making  of  agricultural 
lxx)klets  13  as  a  type  of  written  work,  if  properly  managed  and  not 
overdone,  has  a  certain  value  in  teaching  the  pupil  to  gather  and 
organize  information  and  in  cultivating  expression.  It  is  better 
adapted  to  elementary  pupils  than  to  secondary  (3,  4,  36). 

Combination  of  Methods. — When  the  teacher  and  the  pupils 
have  assembled  in  the  class  meeting,  commonly  called  in  public 
schools  the  "recitation,"  the  best  usage  demands  that  none  of  the 
methods  mentioned  be  excluded  but  each  be  used  where  it  will 
prove  to  be  the  most  effective.  Every  method  named  has  its 
particular  values  and  advantages  as  well  as  its  dangers  and  dis- 
advantages. Not  the  proper  use  but  the  abuse  of  any  particular 
one  need  be  feared.  A  good  teacher,  acquainted  with  his  pupils, 
his  subject  matter,  and  the  correct  use  of  the  different  methods, 
knows  which  method  to  use  at  each  step  in  the  progress  of  the 
recitation.  In  most  good  recitations  the  question,  the  topic,  the 
laboratory,  the  lecture,  the  Socratic,  the  conversational  and  others 
in  more  or  less  modified  form  will  be  skilfully  interwoven  to 
carry  through  a  carefully  conceived  lesson  plan.  A  pupil  may 
present  a  topic,  a  teacher  or  pupil  ask  a  question,  the  class  turn 
to  laboratory  materials  for  observation  and  the  teacher  add  vital 
information  and  display  an  object  for  illustration;  four  of  the 
principal  methods  being  used  in  only  a  small  portion  of  the  time 
of  the  class  meeting. 

If  the  best  teaching  is  to  be  done,  the  organization  of  the  pro- 
gram of  recitations,  the  arrangement  and  equipment  of  the  room, 
the  character  of  the  apparatus  and  supplies  and  the  fixtures  for 
their  proper  use  as  well  as  the  type  of  class  management  must  all  be 

13 See  I'ickanl,  "Rural  Education"  (Webb),  p.  331. 


THE  THREE  T'S  61 

so  planned  that  a  teacher  can  utilize  any  method  during  any  portion 
of  any  class  meeting  period  without  inconvenience  to  himself  or  to 
the  class.  (This,  of  course,  does  not  include  such  modifications 
of  fundamental  methods  as  visits  to  other  points.)  All  room  ar- 
rangements and  equipment  should  be  made  to  conform  to  this  as 
the  fundamental  necessity  and  the  ability  to  utilize  skilfully  these 
facilities  in  such  a  combination  of  methods  should  be  the  final  test 
of  the  teaching  efficiency  of  the  instructor. 

The  Conduct  of  the  Recitation. — So  much  has  already  been 
said  under  other  headings  that  bear  directly  upon  the  proper  con- 
ducting of  the  class  meeting  that  it  seems  unnecessary  to  say  more. 
The  proper  conditions  of  health  and  bodily  comfort;  the  observance 
of  the  natural  processes  of  learning;  the  character  and  use  of  the 
assignment,  the  study  period,  lesson  plans,  various  methods  of 
instruction;  proper  organization,  administration  and  class  manage- 
ment; and  many  other  things  having  a  bearing  upon  the  conduct- 
ing of  the  class  meeting  have  been  considered.  In  addition  to  what 
has  been  said  it  seems  wise  to  gather  here  some  brief  suggestions 
regarding  the  conduct  of  the  recitation  even  though  a  part  of  them 
have  been  alluded  to  in  other  connections. 

The  Three  T's. — The  teacher  should  remember  that  the  reci- 
tation includes  the  three  T's,  Testing,  Teaching,  and  Training 
(drilling).  They  are  not  wholly  separate  and  mutually  exclusive. 
Testing  contains  some  elements  of  teaching  and  training,  teaching 
is  more  or  less  a  constant  testing  and  training  (drilling),  and  train- 
ing has  its  features  of  both  testing  and  teaching.  But  in  the  rec- 
itation certain  types  of  activities  are  directed  to  one  of  the  three 
purposes.  These  three  characteristics  of  the  recitation  may  be  made 
plainer  by  a  more  detailed  statement  of  the  aims  of  the  recitation. 

These  aims  have  been  stated  and  restated  in  more  or  less  elab- 
orate form  by  many  writers.  A  brief  and  condensed  resume  must 
suffice  here.  To  test  the  pupil's  preparation  upon  the  assignment, 
his  comprehension  of  the  subject,  his  general  knowledge,  his  ac- 
curacy, his  ability  to  think,  to  judge,  to  apply  and  to  use;  to  teach 
by  pupils  contributing  the  data  they  have  gathered,  by  the  teacher 
directing  them  in  obtaining  more  data,  by  the  teacher  contributing 
additional  data,  by  supplanting  error  with  truth,  by  leading  the 
pupil  in  the  comparison  of  data  and  in  the  formation  of  conclu- 
sions and  the  application  of  these  conclusions  to  the  solution  of 
new  situations;  to  train  in  organizing  knowledge  and  in  proper 
expression,  in  acquiring  skill  in  performance  of  processes,  in 


62  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

making  the  results  of  learning  a  more  permanent  possession  are 
the  principal  aims. 

Less  Prominent  Aims. — There  are  many  less  prominent  aims, 
among  which  may  be  named:  Keeping  the  learning  process  con- 
nected and  continuous,  arousing  motives  for  intensive  study,  devel- 
oping self-confidence  in  pupil  and  teacher,  learning  each  pupil's 
characteristics,  cultivating  the  mental  powers,  enabling  a  pupil  to 
compare  himself  with  others  and  to  help  them  and  to  be  helped  by 
them,  furnishing  the  teacher  a  check  upon  the  quality  of  his  teach- 
ing, and  inculcating  the  many  needed  principles  to  guide  human 
action  in  social  surroundings.  It  is  assumed,  of  course,  that  the 
recitation  is  to  make  its  contribution  to  the  attainment  of  all  the 
general  though  remote  aims  of  all  education. 

The  test,  if  intended  to  determine  the  pupil's  preparation  for 
the  recitation  or  his  fitness  to  learn  what  is  to  be  taught  during 
that  recitation,  should  be  at  the  first  of  the  period;  if  to  determine 
his  grasp  of  what  has  been  taught  during  the  recitation,  it  should  be 
at  the  last.  It  should  be  well  planned,  brief,  terse,  searching,  and 
rapidly  conducted.  Brief,  significant,  written  replies  to  a  well-pre- 
pared list  of  questions  testing  the  preparation  and  disclosing  the 
weaknesses  needing  attention  can  frequently  be  obtained,  corrected, 
and  results  recorded  in  one  quarter  of  the  recitation  period.  This 
tests  all  equally,  takes  little  time,  and  often  enables  the  class  to  put 
the  remaindei  of  the  period  to  a  more  valuable  use  by  showing  just 
what  does  and  what  does  not  need  attention.  Solving  problems, 
making  topical  outlines  from  memory  of  the  lesson  or  given  portions 
of  it  is  one  other  good  method  of  testing  quickly  all  members  of 
the  class. 

The  teaching  portion  of  the  recitation  has  already  been  treated 
quite  fully  in  previous  topics.  A  few  cautions  may  be  added  here. 
The  teacher  should  know  his  subject  and  this  particular  lesson, 
and  not  lean  on  the  book  nor  much  upon  his  written  lesson  plan. 
He  should  have  ready  everything  needful  for  the  period  and  have 
it  in  working  order.  He  should  insist  upon  good  order,  attention, 
promptness,  and  alertness.  He  should  hold  to  the  plan  of  the  lesson ; 
hold  every  pupil  responsible  for  following  accurately  the  progress  of 
the  work;  keep  every  pupil  thinking  hard,  actively,  and  con- 
tinuously. No  time  should  be  wasted  in  taking  dictation  or  copy- 
ing. Such  material  should  be  prepared  on  a  duplicator  and  furnished 
to  pupils.  Recitation  time  is  precious  and  every  minute  should  be 
made  to  yield  a  leturn  which  pupils  will  appreciate  as  worth  their 


DRILL  63 

while.  Use  objects,  pictures,  slides,  charts,  and  diagrams  plenti- 
fully but  do  not  let  time  be  wasted  upon  them.  In  all  but  classes 
of  only  a  few  members  insist  upon  a  pupil  standing  squarely  on  his 
feet  for  all  answers  of  any  length.  Under  all  circumstances  insist 
u{xm  every  pupil  mentally  standing  upon  his  own  feet.  Permit 
no  ''coaching"  or  interrupting  by  the  class.  Insist  upon  clear 
thinking  and  succinct  expression.  Remember  that  the  class  is  a 
group  that  must  be  taught  and  must  learn  as  individuals.  There 
is  no  vicarious  learning.  The  doctrine  of  every  fellow  for  himself 
is  imperative  in  actually  acquiring  an  education  beyond  the  helpful 
environment  which  fellowship  may  contribute.  Know  your  pupils, 
their  capacities,  interests,  motives,  and  environment  and  adapt 
your  teaching  to  them  (1,  2,  6,  9,  10,  14,  16,  33,  50). 

Drill  as  a  feature  of  the  recitation  is  treated  as  a  separate  topic. 

Drill. — Even  when  a  lesson  has  been  well  assigned,  well  studied 
and  so  well  taught  that  comprehension,  appreciation,  and  the  knowl- 
edge of  how  to  apply  it  are  complete,  the  desirable  processes  are  not 
necessarily  yet  complete.  Certain  portions  of  the  subject  matter, 
those  that  constitute  instruments  which  the  pupil  will  need  in  the 
future  either  to  obtain  further  education  or  to  perform  the  duties 
of  life  and  which  he  cannot  afford  to  depend  upon  searching  out 
anew  for  the  purpose,  must  become  so  fixed  in  their  functioning  that 
they  become  habitual. 

The  process  used  to  "insure  the  functioning  of  the  experience 
in  habit"  4  is  called  drill.  Since  it  is  a  habit-forming  process  it 
is  governed  by  the  laws  and  conditions  peculiar  to  habit  forma- 
tion. The  material  to  be  drilled  upon  should  first  be  clearly  com- 
prehended. Attentive  and  thoughtful  repetition  should  then  occur 
until  retention  and  recall  are  automatic  and  the  necessary  skill 
in  use  is  attained.  Short  periods  of  repetition  under  strict  and 
undivided  attention  should  succeed  each  other  after  gradually 
successively  longer  periods  of  rest  from  drill.  This  should  be  con- 
tinued until  the  necessary  degree  of  perfection  is  attained.  The 
best  form,  stripped  of  all  unnecessary  details,  should  be  chosen  at 
the  outset  and  never  varied  during  drill. 

Efficiency  in  drill  is  conditioned,  within  certain  limits,  by  clear- 
ness of  orginal  comprehension,  interest  in  attaining  proficiency, 
persistence  in  repetition,  the  avoidance  of  monotony,  the  avoidance 
of  variation,  the  avoidance  of  fatigue,  and  the  satisfaction  in 
the  effect. 

14  Bagley,  "Educative  Process,"  p.  328. 


64  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Some  of  the  most  common  of  the  impelling  motives  are  appreci- 
ating the  future  need,  the  curiosity  instinct,  the  emulation  to  excel 
either  some  one  else  or  one's  own  record,  the  instinctive  love  of  rep- 
etition, and  the  satisfaction  in  attaining  skill.  When  these  are 
inefficient  the  teacher  must  supply  some  more  tangible  incentives. 

The  abuses  of  drill  by  attempting  to  utilize  it  as  a  means  of 
accomplishing  comprehension,  or  appreciation,  using  it  to  excess, 
violating  the  laws  of  habit  formation  in  applying  it  and  wasting  the 
time  of  the  group  drilling  upon  something  for  which  only  one  or 
two  were  in  need,  have  led  to  much  criticism  of  drilling.  But  it  has 
its  place  and  is  as  necessary  as  are  the  other  steps  in  teaching. 

Charters  l5  calls  attention  to  the  distinction  between  drill  and 
application,  defining  the  former  as  "the  reviewing  or  repeating  of  a 
unit  over  and  over  again  in  the  same  situation"  and  the  latter  as 
the  "use  of  a  unit  in  a  new  situation."  In  this  sense  the  use  of 
drill  in  agriculture  is  much  less  needed  than  it  is  in  the  conven- 
tional studies.  Agriculture,  however,  furnishes  frequent  and 
interesting  opportunities  for  the  repeated  application  of  certain 
fundamental  principles  and  processes.  If  the  teacher  is  watchful  of 
opportunities  to  apply  them  he  will  have  one  of  his  richest  rewards  : 
that  of  beholding  his  teachings  functioning  naturallyin  the  daily  lives 
of  his  pupils.  Principles  comprehended  and  understood  are  of  little 
value  until  they  eventuate  in  human  action.  Drill  on  the  few  things 
necessary,  but  place  greater  emphasis  upon  practical  and  successful 
application  and  in  this  give  plenty  of  training  in  determining  when 
and  how  to  make  the  application  (8,  11,  12,  14,  20,  34,  37, 44,  45, 49). 

Skill  may  be  briefly  defined  as  proficiency  in  execution.  To 
attain  it  two  things  are  necessary:  form  and  practice.  Form  can  be 
acquired  through  trial  and  error  (trial  and  accidental  success), 
through  directions  and  example,  through  external  guidance,  or 
through  any  combination  of  these.  In  acquiring  form  reflection  on 
the  various  elements  and  their  organization  is  frequently  of  value; 
imitation,  instincts,  automatic  activities,  ideas,  imagination,  in- 
genuity, experimentation,  attention,  and  interest  play  their  parts. 

The  second  necessity,  practice,  can  be  obtained  by  drill  the 
characteristics  of  which  have  just  been  discussed.  After  sufficient 
attention  has  been  put  upon  the  action  to  obtain  satisfactory 
form,  the  attention  should  be  held  principally  upon  the  results,  not 
upon  the  process.  Needless  and  conflicting  actions  should  be 
omitted  in  acquiring  form  and  avoided  during  drill.  So  far  as 

15  "Mttliods  of  Teaching,"  p.  225. 


SKILL  65 

possible,  correct  form  should  be  adopted  early  before  incorrect 
form  has  become  habitual  with  all  the  difficulties  attendant  upon 
the  breaking  of  a  wrong  habit.  While  good  form  is  essential  it  Is 
sometimes  narrow  pedantry  to  insist  upon  one  form  alone  for  all 
persons  when  some  latitude  may  be  allowed  without  any  ill  effect 
upon  the  skill.  There  are  certain  differences  in  persons  that 
make  a  difference  in  form  dr  irable.  This  is  frequently  illustrated 
in  various  athletic  performances,  in  penmanship,  and  in  applied 
arts.  There  is  also  some  danger  in  teaching  the  skills  that  two 
much  emphasis  may  be  placed  upon  explanation  and  not  enough 
upon  imitation  and  execution.  The  real  test  of  skill  is  the  ability 
to  execute  with  the  desired  proficiency  and  not  the  ability  to 
describe  and  explain. 

Skill,  the  ability  to  do  well,  is  always  at  a  premium.  The"  world 
has  always  applauded  and  rewarded  the  man  of  skill.  The  schools 
have  far  too  long  exalted  reflection  to  the  exclusion  of  execution. 
The  evolution  of  universal  education  demands  that  education  shall 
not  only  be  universal  in  that  it  shall  include  all  the  people  but  also 
that  it  shall  be  adapted  to  the  needs  of  all  the  people.  There  are  many 
for  whom  the  grasping  of  abstract  principles  is  difficult  but  who 
have  great  possibilities  in  the  realm  of  the  skills.  For  these  the 
schools  must  provide  an  opportunity  of  education  as  well  adapted 
to  their  needs  as  the  old  education  has  been  to  the  reflectively 
inclined.  Edward  L.  Thorndyke16  says:  "The  taste  for  workman- 
ship— the  impulse  to  do  the  job  as  it  should  be  done,  making  a  first- 
rate  product  by  a  fit  means  —  is  one  of  the  most  easily  developed, 
but  also  one  of  the  best  virtues.  It  is  commonly  more  truly 
cultural  or  refining  than  an  interest  in  correct  manners,  speech, 
or  opinions  about  the  fine  arts,  because  it  is  commonly  more 
sincere  and  less  tainted  with  ostentation." 

Farming  is  a  combination  of  science  and  art.  From  the  birth  of 
man  to  the  nineteenth  century  it  has  been  mainly  an  art  guided  by 
the  "rule  of  thumb."  The  development  of  the  sciences  during  the 
nineteenth  century  and  the  establishment  of  the  agriculture  ex- 
periment stations  in  1887  through  joint  state  and  federal  action 
mark  the  real  advent  of  scientific  agriculture  in  the  United  States. 

Agricultural  science  has  done  much  to  improve  agricultural  prac- 
tice, but  farm  skills  based  on  the  trial  and  accidental  success  and  the 
rule  of  thumb  developed  therefrom  are  still  far  too  prevalent. 
Many  of  the  farm  skills  need  careful  analysis,  judicious  elimination 

16  "Education,"  p.  48. 
5 


06  METHODS  OP  TEACHING 

of  the  wrong  and  the  useless  features,  effective  synthesis  of  the 
correct  and  the  necessary,  and  intelligent  drill  upon  the  perfected 
process.  The  schools  and  colleges  have  not  yet  done  their  share  in 
this  field.  Highly  skilful  plowing,  milking,  grooming,  stacking, 
cornhusking,  cotton  picking,  pruning,  spading,  transplanting, 
rope  work,  horse  training  and  scores  of  other  farm  processes  de- 
jxMident  upon  proficiency  of  motor  control  are  far  too  rare. 

The  teacher  of  agriculture  must  do  his  share.  Processes  must 
l>c  studied  and  analyzed.  Pictures,  slides,  films,  and  actual  per- 
formance must  illustrate  the  proper  movements.  Practice  in 
normal  surroundings  must  furnish  the  drill  necessary  to  produce 
proficiency  and  to  make  correct  performance  habitual.  In  teach- 
ing the  processes  dealt  with  in  Chapters  V  to  XII  the  teacher 
should  use  every  possible  opportunity  to  extend  his  teaching  be- 
yond mere  theoretical  comprehension  into  the  field  of  actual  execu- 
tion (16,  18,  34,  37,  46,  47,  49). 

Reviews. — As  the  form  of  the  word  indicates,  the  review  is  to 
view  again  that  which  has  been  the  subject  of  study.  The  major 
purposes  of  a  review  are  to  obtain  more  complete  comprehension 
and  appreciation  and  to  increase  the  probability  of  successful 
retention  and  recall.  The  attainment  of  the  former  is  by  means  of 
regular  teaching  processes  and  of  the  latter  by  some  of  the  proc- 
esses used  in  drilling. 

In  the  teaching  the  regular  steps  of  induction  and  deduction 
may  l>e  used,  the  data  being  the  larger  and  more  important  points 
made  in  the  several  lesson  units  or  thought  units  instead  of  the 
smaller  units  used  in  the  separate  lessons  to  develop  these  larger 
points.  The  larger  jxMnts  are  considered  in  their  relationships, 
thus  leading  to  a  reorganization  of  the  subject  matter  of  one  or 
more  lessons  on  the  basis  of  wider  connections.  The  emphasis 
which  has  heretofore  been  upon  the  small  groups  of  facts  such  as 
may  l>e  contained  in  a  single  lesson  is  now  placed  upon  the  large 
system  which  is  created  by  the  proper  correlation  of  the  conclu- 
sions reached  in  those  lessons.  Its  psychological  basis  is  that  of 
old  knowledge  under  the  influence  of  the  new  and  an  appreciation 
of  new  knowledge  by  the  aid  of  the  old.  This  value  is  largely  lost 
if  the  review  is  simply  a  retracing  of  the  exact  steps  taken  by  the 
pupils  in  the  original  process  of  learning,  however  valuable 
such  a  process  may  be  as  mere  drill.  As  a  teaching  procedure 
the  review  must  be  a  new  view.  New  data,  new  grouping,  new 
comparisons  must  be  added  to  illuminate  the  relationships,  create 


THE  TEACHER'S  SKILL  IN  CONDUCTING  REVIEWS       67 

new  associations  and  strengthen  old  ones.  Application  is  fre- 
quently a  very  effective  process  in  the  teaching  as  well  as  in  the 
drilling  features  of  the  review. 

The  drilling  purpose  is  accomplished  partly  as  a  by-product  of 
the  teaching  process  of  the  review.  Working  over  in  the  review 
lesson  the  knowledge  acquired  in  the  original  lessons  gives  a  repe- 
tition which  improves  retention  and  recall.  But  it  is  not  safe  to 
depend  upon  such  casual  repetition  to  furnish  the  necessary  per- 
manence in  remembering  especially  if  the  new  relationships  are 
developed  through  the  reviewing  procedure.  It  is  therefore  well 
to  have  special  drill  upon  the  important  points  brought  out  in  the 
review  which  it  is  desirable  to  have  remembered. 

Some  of  the  other  purposes  of  review  are  to  test  the  pupil,  to 
test  the  teacher,  to  develop  the  pupil's  skill  in  the  reorganization 
of  his  knowledge  into  large  units  and  his  power  to  discriminate  be- 
tween the  important  and  the  less  important  in  what  he  has  learned 
and  to  strengthen  the  \veak  points  in  the  teacher's  methods  and 
in  the  pupil's  knowledge  and  processes  of  learning. 

The  methods  best  adapted  to  the  review  are  the  topical  (with 
its  attendant,  the  written  lesson)  and  the  question  and  answer 
method.  The  laboratory  method  might  be  given  a  limited  use 
whenever  the  test  element  is  very  large  or  the  problem  requires  a 
new  correlation  of  several  previously  more  or  less  disassociated 
processes.  The  lecture  method  is  wholly  inadequate  for  review. 

The  principles  utilized  in  drill  features  of  the  review  are  those 
that  have  been  mentioned  in  the  topics  "Drill"  and  "Skill"  of  the 
foregoing  pages. 

The  Teacher's  Skill  in  Conducting  Reviews. — As  a  test  the 
review  ought  to  be  directed  toward  a  comprehension  of  corre- 
lations and  an  appreciation  of  relative  importance  rather  than  to- 
ward the  memory  of  details.  To  accomplish  this  it  is  necessary  that 
the  teacher  make  even  more  full  and  careful  preparation  for  the 
review  lesson  than  for  an  original  lesson  and  that  he  conduct  the 
recitation  with  the  best  teaching  methods  at  his  command.  For 
while  pupils  ought  to  study  to  accomplish  the  remote  aims  of  educa- 
tion, they  are  only  human  and  are  going  to  bring  to  the  recitation 
the  kind  of  material  they  think  the  teacher  is  going  to  ask  at  their 
hands.  If  the  teacher  demands  scraps,  isolated  facts,  unimportant 
details,  and  catch  questions  in  the  recitation  that  is  the  tale  of 
bricks  they  will  strive  to  bring,  while  if  he  requires  underlying 
principles,  significant  features,  vital  relationships,  and  practical 


68  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

applications  and  processes  their  study  hours  will  be  devoted  to 
meeting  his  expectations.  Though  this  difference  is  especially 
important  in  the  review  recitation  every  teacher  should  fully 
appreciate  that  his  manner  of  conducting  the  recitation  has  more 
influence  than  has  any  other  one  factor  in  determining  the  prep- 
aration his  pupils  make  for  that  important  event. 

When  to  Review. — The  time  of  recurrence  of  reviews  ought  to 
l>e  determined  by  the  organization  of  subject  matter  rather  than 
by  the  clock  or  the  calendar.  If  the  review  is  for  the  purpose  of 
recalling  former  lessons  as  the  step  preceding  the  presentation  of  the 
new  lesson,  it  should  occur  at  the  beginning  of  the  recitation.  If  it  is 
for  the  purpose  of  summarizing  the  results  of  the  current  lesson, 
it  should  occur  at  the  close  of  the  recitation.  If  it  is  to  summarize 
and  fix  clearly  in  mind  the  elements  of  a  given  unit  of  subject 
matter  it  should  be  given  at  the  end  of  that  unit  whether  the  unit 
be  a  part  of  one  lesson  or  consists  of  several  lessons.  To  review 
weekly  or  monthly  regardless  of  the  topics  covered  or  their  re- 
lationships is  poor  teaching.  Within  the  limits  of  what  has  just 
been  said  short,  frequent  reviews  are  better  than  long,  infrequent 
ones.  The  testing  values  of  reviews  will  naturally  come  under  the 
next  topic  (1,  9,  11,  20,  31,  44,  45). 

Testing  and  Measuring. — Every  teaching  exercise  regardless 
of  the  form  or  of  the  method  pursued  (excepting  the  lecture  method 
in  its  strict  use)  contains  in  greater  or  less  degree  testing  and  meas- 
uring features.  Experienced  teachers,  in  order  to  know  better  how 
the  means  in  use  are  accomplishing  the  ends  sought  in  education, 
desire  some  more  specific  measure  than  is  offered  by  the  regular 
teaching  processes.  This  is  especially  true  in  the  work  of  the  ad- 
vanced pupils.  Until  the  last  score  of  years  most  of  these  tests  have 
been  of  a  subjective  nature.  They  were  based  upon  the  judgment 
of  the  teacher  or  tester  or  examiner,  which  judgment  was  itself 
based  (beyond  what  was  learned  from  class  work  and  reviews)  upon 
tests,  quizzes,  and  formal  examinations.  They  were  intended  to 
give  the  teacher  a  knowledge  of  the  pupil,  the  pupil  a  knowledge  of 
himself,  and  the  teacher  a  knowledge  of  the  success  of  his  own 
teaching.  The  teacher's  knowledge  of  the  pupil  he  could  use  to 
correct  the  •  faults  in  the  pupil's  education,  to  determine  the 
classification  and  promotion  of  pupils,  to  decide  the  content  and 
method  of  succeeding  lessons  and  many  other  features  of  organ- 
ization, management  and  method.  The  pupil's  self-knowledge 
furnishes  motivation  and  direction  for  his  future  efforts,  The 


WRITTEN  EXAMINATIONS  69 

teacher's  knowledge  of  the  success  of  his  own  teaching  furnishes 
the  basis  for  a  readjustment  of  his  methods. 

An  exercise  so  valuable  in  so  many  different  ways  cannot  well 
be  abandoned  even  though  there  arc  some  objections  urged  against 
it.  The  complexity  of  the  learning  process,  the  crudity  of  piesent 
methods,  and  the  importance  of  achieving  the  aims  of  education 
demand  constant  effort  if  we  are  to  keep  even  approximately  near 
to  desirable  standards.  Measuring  the  results  of  our  teaching  is 
one  of  the  checks  used  for  that  purpose.  If  the  pupil  is  to  obtain 
knowledge — then  we  must  test  to  ascertain  his  possession  of  it  and 
his  ability  to  organize  it  and  apply  it.  If  he  is  to  possess  habits,  we 
must  test  for  the  presence  of  the  right  habits  functioning  in  the 
right  manner.  If  he  is  to  have  skills  we  must  test  his  proficiency  in 
the  performance  of  the  particular  skills  and  not  merely  his  ability 
to  describe  the  performance.  Application  arid  actual  performance 
are  so  difficult  to  administer  in  schools  that  the  written  examination 
has  been  made  to  bear  some  responsibilities  to  which  it  is  not  well 
adapted.  This  is  the  origin  of  many  of  the  objections  that  have 
been  raised  against  it. 

Written  Examinations. — If  formal  written  tests  and  examina- 
tions are  to  be  given  they  should  conform  to  the  principles  of  ques- 
tioning and  the  review  already  mentioned.  In  addition  to  what 
has  been  stated  already  a  few  suggestions  are  added  here.  If  the 
examiner  intends  to  assign  different  valuas  to  questions,  pupils 
should  know  the  assigned  values  before  writing  the  answers ;  some 
choice  may  be  allowed  in  regarding  which  questions  shall  be  an- 
swered; and  the  results  of  the  examination  should  not  be  over- 
influential  in  determining  the  standing  of  the  pupil  but  due  weight 
should  be  given  to  daily  work,  written  work,  and  oral  and  written 
quizzes;  the  occurrence  of  the  examination  should  not  be  deter- 
mined by  the  calendar  but  by  the  pedagogical  organization  of  the  sub- 
ject matter;  examinations  should  be  distributed  throughout  the  year 
according  to  the  last  statement  and  should  not  be  concentrated  into 
one  cramming,  nerve-racking  week;  those  physically  unfit  through 
youth,  illness  or  abnormality  should  not  be  subjected  to  them. 

Even  with  all  that  can  be  done  to  overcome  the  objections  to 
subjective  tests  it  is  still  urged  that  the  results  are  unreliable 
because  of  the  differences  of  knowledge,  judgment,  prejudice,  and 
bias  of  those  who  record  results.  17 

17  See  Starch,  "Educational  Measurements";  Finkelstein,  "The  Marking 
System  in  Theory  and  Practice";  Monroe,  DeVoss,  and  Kelly,  "Educational 
Tests  and  Measurements." 


70  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Objective  Tests. — To  overcome  this  much  has  been  done  in  the 
past  decade  to  develop  objective  tests  based  upon  pupil  performance 
in  the  art  of  doing.  Itapid  progress  has  been  made  in  the  production 
of  standard  objective  tests  for  the  common  branches.  While  these 
represent  a  movement  in  the  right  direction,  that  of  establishing  a 
scientific  objective  basis,  they  are  as  yet  open  to  the  criticism  that 
crudeness  and  imperfection  mark  the  standards  set  and  that  the 
subjective  element  is  still  present  in  the  creation  of  the  standards, 
the  application  of  the  tests,  and  the  interpretation  of  results.  Many 
standard  tests  for  the  common  branches  are  available  for  use  at 
moderate  cost.  18 

The  teacher  of  agriculture  has  an  excellent  opportunity  to 
utilize  tests  which  have  the  merit  ot  being  objective,  practical, 
and  to  some  extent  standardized.  In  exercises,  practicums,  pro- 
jects, and  other  forms  of  doing  he  can  easily  see  whether  or  not  his 
teaching  has  been  efficient.  The  final  test  of  the  efficiency  of  his 
work  in  the  school  will  be  whether  or  not  the  pupil  wants  to  farm, 
knows  what  to  do  in  farming,  can  do  the  thing  skilfully  on  the  farm, 
and,  ultimately,  whether  or  not  he  is  farming  successfully  and 
happily.  In  addition  to  these  evidences  in  the  lives  of  his  par- 
ticular school  pupils,  there  should  be  found  tests  of  his  community 
leadership  in  definite  improvement  in  the  farm  and  rural  life 
practices  in  the  community  which  has  come  within  the  sphere  of 
his  influence  (1,  2,  6,  7,  11,  12,  14,  17,  20,  25,  27,  32,  34,  35,  38, 
41,  44,  45,  47). 

EXERCISES  AND  QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  a  specific  illustration  of  the  inductive  procedure  in  a  lesson. 
The  deductive. 

2.  State  circumstances  under  which  the  inductive  steps  ordinarily  omitted 
should  l>e  used  in  an  agricultural  lesson. 

3.  State  ten  things  which  the  teacher  might  assume  as  being  known  if 
his  pupils  were  reared  on  local  farms  but  which  he  would  have  to  teach  if  his 
pupils  were  reared  in  town  or  city.     What  connection  has  this  with  induction 
or  deduction? 

4.  Name  five  agricultural  topics  suitable  for  teaching  by  means  of  the 
"five  formal  steps." 

f>.  Select  one  of  the  topics  in  exercise  four  and  show  of  what  each  step 
consists. 

(>.  What  kind  of  process  is  used  in  finding,  with  the  scales  and  the  Bab- 
cock  tester,  the  daily  butter  fat  yield  of  a  cow? 

'"See.  Chapman  and  Hush,  "The  Scientific  Measurement  of  Classroom 
Products";  Monroe,  DeVoss,  ami  Kelly,  "Educational  Tests  and  Measure- 
ments." 


EXERCISES  AND  QUESTIONS  71 

7.  What  kind  of  u  process  is  used  in  teaching  the  reason  for  the  dust 
mulch? 

8.  State  five  problems  each  suitable  for  the  "aim"  in  an  assignment. 

9.  Write  a  sample  ;issignment  for  a  lesson  in  agronomy. 

10.  Make  an  oral  assignment  of  a  lesson  in  poultry. 

11.  What  are  the  objections  to  assigning  the  lesson  by  the  textb(x>k  pages? 

12.  Show  how  agricultural  journals  may  be  utilized  in  an  assignment; 
how  fanners'  bulletins  may  be  used. 

13.  What  are  the  advantages  of  making  the  assignment  at  the  beginning 
of  the  recitation?    At  the  close? 

14.  What  are  the  most  common  faults  in  making  assignments? 

15.  What  special  suggestions  should  be  made  to  agricultural  teachers 
regarding  assignments? 

16.  Submit  the  plan  of  a  lesson  on  finding  the  per  cent,  of  stand  of  corn. 
One  on  selecting  seed  for  one  of  the  principal  crops  in  your  locality. 

17.  Outline  in  topical  form  for  the  purposes  of  a  recitation  a  lesson  on  the 
construction  of  a  poultry  house. 

18.  Designate  the  topics  in  exercise  seventeen,  each  of  which  would  be 
suitable  for  a  written  lesson  to  occupy  forty  minutes. 

19.  Under  what  circumstances  is  a  written  lesson  justifiable? 

20.  Make  a  list  of  the  ten  principal  questions  you  would  ask  a  class  in  a 
recitation  on  the  humus  content  of  soil. 

21.  Illustrate  what  is  meant  by  a  "leading"  question. 

22.  What  reasons  are  there  to  be  urged  against  relying  upon  the  formal 
questions  printed  in  the  text? 

23.  Recall  instances  in  your  experience  of  faulty  questioning.     (Avoid 
local  personal  allusions.) 

24.  State   five  problems  in  agriculture,   each   suitable   for  a   laboratory 
exercise  of  thirty  minutes. 

25.  State  some  of  the  abuses  or  failures  of  the  laboratory  method  which 
you  have  experienced. 

26.  Name  ten  topics  in  agriculture  in  which  laboratory  work  would  be 
prominent. 

27.  Suggest  ways  and  means  of  keeping  the  laboratory  work  and  the  reci- 
tation work  connected. 

28.  Enumerate  the  objections  to  the  lecture  method  in  poblie  schools. 

29.  Illustrate  by  specific  examples  the  proper  use  of  the  "telling"  method 
in  a  class  in  agriculture. 

30.  Attack  or  defend  the  statement  that  relying  upon  the  "  telling  "  ir.ethod 
is  a  lazy  man's  procedure. 

31.  Show   the   relations   between    the   laboratory   method,    the   problem 
method,  and  the  project  method. 

32.  Make  a  list  of  laboratory  exercises,  another  of  practicums,  and  another 
of  projects  all  in  farm  crops  and  adapted  to  your  locality. 

33.  What  are  the  objections  to  the  textbook  method? 

34.  Suggest  five  things  that  would  tend  to  overcome  the  evil  results  of 
over-reliance  on  the  textbook? 

35.  Write  a  series  of  Socratic  questions  that,  without  other  aid,  would 
tend  to  convince  a  man  of  his  error  who  thought  the  potato  was  a  "root." 

36.  Make  a  detailed  set  of  instructions  suitable  for  guiding  your  class  in 
an  observation  lesson  at  a  specified  nearby  farm. 

37.  Make  a  list  of  subjects  suitable  for  agricultural  booklets  to  he  made 
by  the  seventh  grade  class. 

38.  Choosing  your  own  assignment,  write  a  lesson  plan  that  will  show 
the  use  of  the  question  and  answer,  topic,  laboratory,  and  telling  methods  in 
one  forty-five  minute  period. 


72  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

39.  State  the  principal  advantages  of  the  combined  method. 

40.  Choosing  your  own  assignment,  show  how  you  would  test,  teach,  and 
drill  in  one  recitation  period. 

41.  Make  a  list  of  questions  adapted  to  the  testing  on  the  topic  used  in 
forty  and  formulate  them  so  as  to  require  clear  thinking  but  brief  answers. 

42.  Make  a  list  of  ten  things  in  the  agriculture  lessons  upon  which  you  can 
justify  drilling. 

43.  Name  five  farm  "skills"  that  to  your  knowledge  are  unskilfully  per- 
formed by  many  fanners  in  your  locality. 

44.  To  what  do  you  attribute  the  lack  of  skill  in  each  case  mentioned  in 
forty-three  ? 

45.  Suggest  remedies  for  each  item  of  your  list  mentioned  in  forty-three. 

46.  Make  a  list  of  points  in  the  course  in  farm  crops  at  which  you  would 
stop  for  review;  in  animal  husbandry;  in  poultry;  in  farm  management. 

47.  What  recitation  method  do  you  prefer  in  the  review?    Why? 

48.  Make  a  sample  set  of  examination  questions  to  be  used  in  the  agron- 
omy class  including  any  instructions  you  would  give  to  the  pupils  about  them. 

49.  State  the  relative  merit  and  lack  of  merit  in  letters  and  percentages 
as  a  means  of  recording  the  results  of  the  work  of  the  pupils. 

50.  Give  yourself  an  examination  upon  a  set  of  questions  similar  to  these : 
(a)  Are  my  assignments  clear,  full,  complete?     Are  they  stimulating? 

Do  they  set  forth  a  definite  problem?  Are  references  explicit  and  sources 
available?  Are  assignments  carefully  prepared  before  meeting  the  class? 
Do  they  contain  modifications  advisable  because  of  discoveries  made  in 
the  recitation? 

(ft)  Do  my  pupils  study  to  advantage?  \Vith  zest?  Do  they  have  good 
systems  of  note-taking,  of  attacking  problems,  of  organizing  their  findings? 

(c)  Are  my  lesson  plans  adapted  to  my  recitation  plans?     Are  they  in 
proper  sequence?     Do  they  provide  for  sufficient  pupil  activity?     Teacher 
freedom? 

(d)  Do  I  confine  myself  too  closely  to  one  method?     If  so,  to  which? 
Do  I  ask  too  few  thought  questions?    Do  I  dominate  the  course  of  thought 
too  much?    Do  I  direct  it  too  little?    Do  pupils  ask  enough  questions?    Are 
my  questions  well  formulated?     Are  they  sufficiently  thought  provoking? 
Do  I  repeat  questions  unnecessarily?    Do  I  give  time  for  thoughtful  answers? 
Do  I  ask  questions  briskly  enough  to  sustain  interest?    Am  I  heard?    If  not, 
why?     Do  I  provoke  disorder  by  my  loud  voice?    Are  my  questions  tactfully 
distributed  among  pupils?     Do  I  permit  talkative  or  unprepared  pupils  to 
rob  the  class?    Do  I  permit  vague  answers?    Do  I  habitually  echo  the  answers 
of  pupils?    Do  I  talk  too  much? 

(e)  Do  I  have  my  room  and  materials  ready  before  class  time?     Are 
laboratory  materials  and  apparatus  conveniently  arranged?    Are  pupils  seated 
to  the  best  advantage?     Are  class-  and  pupil-movements  well  planned  and 
routinized?    Do  I  remove  unnecessary  sources  of  distraction? 

(/)  Do  I  lean  on  the  textbook  too  heavily?  Do  I  use  objects,  laboratory 
materials,  field  trips,  and  home  observation  assignments  sufficiently? 

(g)  Are  my  drills  purposive,  well  organized,  and  snappy?  Are  they 
adapted  to  agriculture?  Do  I  pay  enough  attention  to  improving  local 
farm  skills? 

When  these  have  been  answered,  prepare  a  similar  set  for  further  tests 
of  yourself,  t'se  great  care  to  see  that  you  deal  honestly  with  yourself  in 
answering  and  in  evaluating  answers. 

REFERENCES 

BAGLEY,  WILLIAM  CHANDLER:    "The  Educative  Process." 
2  BACJLEY,  WILLIAM  CHANDLER:    "Classroom  Management." 


REFERENCES  73 

*  BETTS,  GEORGE  HERBERT:   "The  Recitation." 

4  BOURNE,  HENRY  E. :   "The  Teaching  of  History  and  Civics." 

6  BRIGGS,  THOMAS  H.,  and  COFFMAN,  LOTUS  D.:     "Reading  in  Public 
Schools." 

'  CHANCELLOR,  WILLIAM  ESTABROOK:  "  Class  Teaching  and  Management." 

7  CHAPMAN,  J.  CROSBY,  and  RUSH,  GRACE  PREYER:  "The  Scientific  Meas- 
urement of  Classroom  Products." 

8 CHARTERS,  W.  W.:    "Methods  of  Teaching." 
•CHARTERS,  W.  W.:   "Teaching  the  Common  Branches." 
'"CoLGRovE,  CHAUNCEY  P.:    "The  Teacher  and  the  School." 

11  COLVIN,    STEPHEN    SHELDON:      "An    Introduction    to    High    School 
Teaching." 

12  COLVIN,  STEPHEN  SHELDON:   "The  Learning  Process." 

13  COLVIN,  S.  S.  and  BAGLEY,  W.  C.:    "Human  Behavior." 

14  DAVIS,  SHELDON  EMMOR:    "The  Work  of  the  Teacher." 

16  DEARBORN,  GEORGE  VAN  NESS:    "How  to  Learn  Easily." 

16  EARHART,  LIDA  B.:    "Types  of  Teaching." 

17  FINKELSTEIN,  I.  E.:    "The  Marking  System  in  Theory  and  Practice." 

18  FREEMAN,  FRANK  N.:    "How  Children  Learn." 

19  HALL-QUEST,  ALFRED  LAWRENCE:    "Supervised  Study." 

20  HARTWELL,  ERNEST  C.:    "The  Teaching  of  History." 

21  HOLLISTER,  HORACE  A.:    "High  School  and  Class  Management." 

22  HUMMEL,    WILLIAM    GRANVILLE    and    BERTHA    R. :      "Materials   and 
Methods  in  High  School  Agriculture." 

23  JONES,  W.  FRANKLIN:    "Principles  of  Education  Applied  to  Practice." 

24  KITSON,  HARRY  D.:    "How  to  Use  Your  Mind." 
36  KLAPPER,  PAUL:    "The  Teaching  of  Arithmetic." 

26  McMuRRY,  CHARLES  A.  and  FRANK  M.:  "Method  of  the  Recitation." 

27  McMuRRY,  CHARLES  A.:    "Conflicting  Principles  in  Teaching." 

28  McMuRRY,  CHARLES  A.:    "The  Project  Method  in  Teaching." 

29  McMuRRY,  FRANK  M.:    "How  to  Study." 

30  MONROE,  PAUL  (Editor):    "Cyclopedia  of  Education." 

31  MONROE,  PAUL  (Editor):    "Principles  of  Secondary  Education." 

32  MONROE,   WALTER  SCOTT,   DE\'OSS,   JAMES  CLARENCE,   and  KELLY, 
FREDERIC  JAMES:    "Educational  Tests  and  Measurements." 

33  NOLAN,  ARETAS  W.:    "The  Teaching  of  Agriculture." 

34  PARKER,  SAMUEL  CHESTER:    "Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools." 

35  PEARSON,  FRANCIS  B.:    "The  Vitalized  School." 

36  PICKARD,  A.  E.:    "Rural  Education." 

37  ROWE,  STUART  H.:    "Habit  Formation  and  the  Science  of  Teaching." 
38 SALISBURY,  ALBERT:    "School  Management." 

39  SALISBURY,  ALBERT:    "The  Theory  of  Teaching." 
40SEERLEY,  HOMER  H.:    "The  Country  School." 

41  STARCH,  DANIEL:    "Educational  Measurements." 

42  STEVENS,  ROMIETT:    "The  Question  as  a  Measure  of  Efficiency  in  In- 
struction." 

43  STIMSON,  RUFUS  W.:    "Vocational  Agricultural  Education." 

44  STRAYER,  GEORGE  DRAYTON:  "A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process." 

45  STRAYER,  GEORGE  D.  and  NORSWORTHY,  NAOMI:    "How  to  Teach." 

46  THORNDYKE,  EDWARD  L.:    "Education." 
47TnoRNDYKE,  EDWARD  L. :    "Principles  of  Teaching." 

48  Twiss,  GEORGE  RANSOM:    "Science  Teaching." 

49  WHITE,  EMERSON  E.:    "The  Art  of  Teaching." 

60  WOODLEY,  O.  I.  and  M.  VIRGINIA:    "The  Profession  of  Teaching." 

61  WOOFTER,  THOMAS  JACKSON:    "Teaching  in  Rural  Schools." 
*2  WATSON,  JOHN  B. :   "Behavior." 


CHAPTER  V 
HOW  TO  TEACH  AGRONOMY 

"The  specific  aim  of  the  work  in  Farm  Crops  is  to  enable  young  jxioplr 
to  obtain  such  a  knowledge  of  the  characteristics,  propagation,  culture,  im- 
provement, storage,  marketing,  and  use  of  the  principal  local  field  crops  as 
will  prepare  them  for  success  in  field  crop  fanning." — Report  of  Committee 
on  Agriculture  of  the  N.  E.  A.  Commission  on  Reorganization  of  Secondary 
Education. 

THE  more  restricted  meaning  of  the  term  Agronomy  is  used  in 
this  chapter.  As  here  used  it  includes  the  production  of  field 
crops  and  the  marketing  and  uses  of  their  products.  The  special 
part  relating  to  soils,  which  is  often  included  in  the  broader  mean- 
ing of  the  term  Agronomy,  is  considered  in  a  separate  chapter  in 
this  book. 

The  local  character  of  the  work  in  field  crops  as  suggested  in  the 
foregoing  quotation  indicates  that  it  is  the  intention  of  educators 
that  in  high  schools  at  least  the  only  crops  of  value  in  the  locality 
are  to  be  included  in  the  studies  made.  Of  course,  crops  which  are 
not  yet  used  in  any  region,  but  which  ought  to  be  grown  there, 
should  be  included  in  the  studies. 

The  vocational  character  of  the  instruction  is  also  implied  in  the 
above  quotation.  If  the  work  were  not  vocational,  crops  of  other 
regions  may  as  well  be  studied  as  those  of  the  locality.  In  vo- 
cational schools,  it  is  important  that  the  work  in  field  crops  be 
devoted,  first,  to  those  crops  which  are  of  greatest  economic  im- 
portance in  the  region;  second,  to  those  which  are  of  secondary 
importance  in  that  region;  third,  to  those  crops  which  should  be 
grown  in  the  region  or  may  well  be  introduced.  If  any  other  crops 
are  to  be  considered  it  will  be  for  the  sake  of  broadening  the 
knowledge  of  the  students  in  the  agronomy  of  other  sections.  And 
this  phase  of  the  work  can  hardly  be  considered  vocational.  Yet 
for  college  students  and  perhaps  students  in  teacher  training  de- 
partments such  crop  would  probably  be  included. 

Northern  students  in  vocational  schools  would  probably  not 
include  such  field  crops  as  cotton,  hemp,  sugar  cane  and  rice. 
Southern  students  in  vocational  courses  would  probably  not  con- 
sider the  growing  of  flax  and  Canada  field  peas.  In  regions  where 
tobacco  is  not  grown  it  would  probably  be  omitted.  The  same 
could  l)c  said  of  a  number  of  field  crops. 

74 


ORDER  OF  TREATMENT  75 

Relation  of  Agronomy  to  other  Subjects. — The  work  in  field 
crops  is  somewhat  fundamental  to  the  work  in  several  other  agri- 
cultural subjects.  For  example,  it  should  come  earlier  in  the 
course  than  soils  and  earlier  than  horticulture.  Of  course,  the 
brief  consideration  of  special  soils  for  particular  crops  will  be  a  part 
of  the  work  with  field  crops.  But  in  a  course  of  study,  a  student 
should  be  expected  to  study  plants  before  he  begins  to  study  soils. 

The  study  of  horticulture  is  more  highly  specialized  than  that 
of  field  crops,  and  the  student  is  beginning  on  more  familiar 
ground  when  he  begins  with  farm  crops.  The  subjects  of  agron- 
omy and  horticulture  overlap  somewhat  in  certain  market  crops, 
as  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  and  cabbage.  In  any  particular  re- 
gion the  instructor  of  agriculture  will  be  able  to  decide  in  which  or 
these  subjects  to  place  such  crops.  If  they  are  grown  as  field 
crops  there,  he  can  continue  to  consider  them  under  that  head. 
Otherwise  they  will  naturally  be  included  as  garden  crops. 

Order  of  Considering  the  Crops. — First  make  a  list  of  the  crops 
Avhich  are  to  be  considered  in  the  study.  Put  at  the  head  of  the  list 
those  crops  of  greatest  local  or  regional  importance.  These  are 
put  first  for  several  reasons:  (a)  They  are  likely  to  be  of  greatest 
economic  importance.  (/;)  They  will  most  readily  gain  and  main- 
tain the  interest  of  the  student,  (c)  They  will  form  the  path  lead- 
ing from  the  known  to  the  unknown. 

Next  on  the  list  place  those  crops  which  are  little  used  in  the 
region  but  which  should  be  grown  there  for  some  reason,  say  as 
money  crops,  for  stock  feed,  or  as  soil  improvers.  Examples  in 
some  regions  might  be  soybeans  or  alfalfa,  or  crimson  clover,  or 
sugar  beets,  or  rape  for  pasture. 

In  a  third  group  place  such  crops  as  can  be  grown  in  the  region 
and  would  be  recommended  for  trial,  but  which  are  almost  un- 
known there. 

Lasthr,  consider  crops  of  great  economic  importance  to  the 
country  but  not  grown  locally  because  of  climate,  moisture,  or  soil. 
Examples  of  this  group  for  some  regions  might  be  peanuts,  kafir, 
sugar  cane,  hemp,  cotton  in  the  North,  and  flax  in  the  South. 
This  would  be  non-vocational  study. 

Order  of  Treatment. — The  direct  or  seasonal  order  of  treatment 
should  be  used  rather  than  the  historic  or  the  old  logical  order.  By 
the  direct  order  is  meant  the  order  in  which  the  student  would 
usually  proceed  in  producing  the  crop.  See  the  project  steps  in 
outline  near  the  close  of  the  project  chapter. 


76  HOW  TO  TEACH  AGRONOMY 

Class  Work  in  Agronomy. — The  topical  method  of  conducting 
the  class  work  is  easily  applied  to  this  subject.  There  are  numerous 
topics  which  may  be  divided  and  subdivided.  References  should 
be  made  to  the  best  texts,  books,  and  bulletins.  The  sources 
of  material  are  many.  Arrange  the  topics  according  to  the  season. 
When  it  is  time  to  select  corn  or  other  seeds,  study  seed  selection. 
Study  testing  at  seed-testing  time.  In  the  winter  when  field  crop 
operations  are  few,  study  the  enemies,  varieties,  and  topics  which 
may  be  illustrated  from  specimens.  Suit  the  classroom  topics  to 
the  laboratory  exercises,  field  trips,  and  project  work  throughout 
the  course. 

Relating  Topics  to  Projects. — There  may  be  nearly  as  many 
projects  pursued  in  the  subject  matter  of  agronomy  as  there  are 
students  in  the  class.  Some  may  be  growing  corn,  or  hay,  or  pas- 
ture, while  others  are  growing  money  crops,  such  as  wheat,  or  oats, 
or  cotton.  Besides  each  student  covering  the  topics  of  his  own 
project,  he  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  study  the  projects  being 
pursued  by  other  members  of  the  class.  Students  will  have  con- 
siderable natural  interest  in  each  other's  projects. 

If  students  are  all  pursuing  about  the  same  projects  in  agron- 
omy, it  may  seem  difficult  to  the  teacher  to  give  individual  topics 
to  different  members  of  the  class  and  yet  have  the  topics  related 
closely  to  the  projects  being  pursued  at  home  or  at  school.  This 
difficulty  is  less  real  than  it  may  seem.  The  projects  are  long  and 
continuous  and  cover  so  much  subject  matter  that  they  may  be 
greatly  subdivided  into  numerous  small  topics.  For  example,  if 
the  student's  project  is  the  production  of  alfalfa,  the  associated 
topics  assigned  to  individuals  or  pairs  of  students  may  be  as  follows: 

Value  of  lime.  Forms  of  lime. 

Signs  of  acidity  in  soil.  Compositfon  of  alfalfa. 

Why  lime  is  needed  for  alfalfa.  Methods  of  inoculation. 

Sources  of  inoculation  materials.  Seeding  of  alfalfa. 

Sources  of  seed.  How  seed  is  produced. 

Why  humid  climates  do  not  produce    Eradicating  weed  seeds  from  soil  before 

alfalfa  seed.  planting. 

Best  dates  for  planting  alfalfa.  Signs  of  when  to  cut  alfalfa. 

Methods  of  curing  the  hay.  Alfalfa  as  a  money  crop. 

Alfalfa  as  a  feed  on  the  farm.  Potatoes  with  alfalfa. 

Alfalfa  on  drained  land.  Improving  poor  soils  for  alfalfa. 

The  effects  of  infrequent  cutting.  The  effect  of  pasturing. 

Duration  of  alfalfa  plantations.  Cultivation  of  alfalfa  stubble. 

Illustrative  Material. — In  every  phase  of  the  subject  of  agron- 
omy, there  should  be  an  abundance  of  illustrative  material  present 


ILLUSTRATIVE  MATERIAL 


77 


for  each  recitation.  Never  think  of  having  a  recitation  in  agronomy 
without  having  considerable  illustrative  material  present.  If  the 
study  concerns  corn,  then  samples  of  different  types  of  corn  should 
be  in  the  room  at  recitation  time  to  illustrate  the  points  that  are 
discussed.  Corn  of  all  types,  on  the  cob,  and  shelled  in  bottles, 
corn  products  such  as  sugar,  syrup,  starch,  oil,  bran,  breakfast  foods 
gum,  etc.,  stalks  of  corn,  tassels,  and  silks  shown  on  the  stalk,  if 
possible,  should  be  present.  Corn  tillage  implements  should  be 
available.  Fertilizers  and  lime  used  on  corn  or  other  crops  should 
be  shown.  Samples  of  bad  weeds  most  concerned  at  the  time  or 


Fia.    IS. — At  this  Minnesota  school,  after  studying  corn  and  selecting  the  seed  in  the  field, 
each  ear  is  carefully  tested  in  the  school  laboratory  before  planting  time.     (Lcwiston  Con- 
solidated School.) 

with  the  particular  crop  should  be  shown.  It  is  better  to  study 
weeds  in  connection  with  the  crops  than  individually. 

Students  should  form  the  habit  of  hunting  up  the  illustrative  ma- 
terial in  the  room  or  elsewhere  for  each  recitation.  Attention  of 
students  to  the  illustrative  material  needed  should  be  a  part  of  the 
lesson  assignment. 

Of  course,  many  of  these  materials  may  be  kept  in  the  room  con- 
stantly but  some  of  the  materials  should  be  fresh  for  each  recitation. 
If  the  season  will  permit,  fresh  stalks  of  growing  corn  are  better 
than  dried  ones.  This  is  also  true  of  weeds,  grasses,  legumes, 
grains,  fiber  crops,  root  crops,  and  others.  Obtaining  fresh  speci- 
mens and  other  materials  for  each  recitation  should  be  a  part  of  the 
work  of  the  student,  but  plans  for  obtaining  the  materials  should  be 
discussed  with  the  instructor. 


78  HOW  TO  TEACH  AGRONOMY 

In  some  cases  the  instructor  will  find  it  better  to  take  the  class 
out  to  the  materials  rather  than  to  bring  the  materials  into  the 
class-room.  If  corn  roots  are  to  be  studied,  for  example,  it  is  better 
to  make  the  study  where  the  corn  is  growing.  Students  may  learn 
to  know  weeds  much  better  if  they  find  them  in  the  fields  than  if 
the  weeds  are  brought  to  the  class-room.  The  same  is  true  of 
grasses,  legumes,  and  other  plants  which  are  not  familiar  to  all  the 
members  of  the  class.  Frequent  outdoor  trips  for  such  purposes 
should  be  made. 

Demonstrations  and  Exercises.— There  are  so  many  exercises 
connected  with  the  subject  of  agronomy  that  it  is  best  to  provide 
laboratory  work  several  times  a  week  for  the  performing  of 


Flo.   19. — Montana  high-school  students  are  learning  to  analyze  seed  samples  for  purity- 

(Carl  A.  Carlson.) 

exercises  which  will  accomplish  several  things:  (1)  Familiarize 
the  student  with  methods;  (2)  demonstrate  effects  of  certain 
treatments,  physical  or  chemical;  (3)  make  the  student  skilful  in 
certain  operations. 

If  regular  laboratory  work  cannot  be  planned  because  of  the 
schedules  of  different  students,  then  it  is  more  important  that  the 
demonstrations  should  be  made  in  the  class-room,  and  some  exer- 
cises can  be  performed  during  the  class  period  by  students,  either 
individually  or  in  groups,  or  by  the  instructor  assisted  by  students. 

A  numlxjr  of  exercises  suitable  for  laboratory  and  outdoor  use 
in  agronomy  are  enumerated  below,  and  a  number  of  these  may  be 
repeated  in  connection  with  each  of  the  crops  studied. 

1.  Examine  seeds  for  adulterations  and  impurities. 

2.  Test  seeds  for  vitality.     (Figs.  18  and  19.) 

3.  Score  grains,  corn,  seed  samples. 


FIELD  TRIPS 


79 


4.  Identification  contests. 

f>.  Scoring  steins  of  grain  in  the  head;  grasses,  hay,  legumes,  and  other 
samples. 

0.  Drill  in  rapid  selection  of  seed  corn  in  field. 

7.  Drill  in  storing  seed  corn  by  the  string  ladder  method,  and  other 
methods. 

8.  Drill  in  selecting  market  grades  of  corn,  filler  crops,  and  other  market- 
able products. 

9.  Treat  oats  and  other  grain  to  prevent  smut. 

10.  Drill  in  the  identification  of  grass  plants  and  their  seeds. 

11.  Drill  in  identification  of  legumes  and  their  seeds. 

12.  Drill  in  identification  of  weeds  and  their  seeds. 

13.  Study  parts  of  flowers,  using  each  of  the  field  crops. 


Flu.   20. — Tliis  agronomy  class  in  a  Wisconsin  hish  school  is  making  a  careful    laboratory 
study  of  four  varieties  of  potatoes  standard  in  that  state.     (M.  C.  Chris  tenson.) 

14.  Chart  the  market  prices  of  crops  for  the  year  from  published  market 
quotations. 

15.  Study  the  morphology  and  composition  of  the  potato  tuber. 

16.  Harvest  seed  potatoes  by  hill-selection  method. 

17.  Study  varieties  and  groups  of  potatoes.     (Fig.  20.) 

18.  Judge  potatoes  and  other  root  crops. 

19.  Compare  and  judge  the  important  types  of  tobacco. 

20.  Study  and  score  many  corn  plants. 

21.  Study  and  score  representative  types  of  cotton  plants. 

22.  Study  types  and  select  seed  beans,  cowpeas,  soybeans,  and  others. 

23.  Compare  weeds  with  reference  to  their  length  of  life  and  places  of 
growth  (habitat). 

Field  Trips. — As  already  suggested,  a  number  of  the  foregoing 
exercises  may  be  conducted  outdoors.     There  are  numerous  other 


80 


HOW  TO  TEACH  AGRONOMY 


field  trips  which  may  be  planned  for  outdoor  study  (Fig.  21). 
Take  trips  to  the  nearby  farms  where  certain  crops  are  growing,  or 
where  ground  is  being  prepared,  cultivation  is  going  on,  or  harvest- 
ing is  in  operation. 

On  most  of  these  field  trips  it  is  advisable  to  collect  specimens  of 
crops,  weeds,  insects,  soils,  and  seeds.  Such  collections  are  merely 
incidental  to  the  main  study  of  the  trip. 

Planning  a  Field  Trip. — It  is  best  if  possible  to  begin  making 
plans  for  the  field  trip  several  days  in  advance.  Certain  prelimi- 
nary studies  may  then  be  possible  and  are  usually  very  beneficial. 


Fio.   21. — These  Iowa  students  are  carefully  studying  crops  in  the  field  during  the  growing 

season. 

Besides  making  preliminary  studies  through  bulletins  and  books,  an 
outline  of  the  studies  to  be  made  on  the  trip  should  be  given  to  the 
members  of  the  class.  Suppose  that  the  trip  is  for  the  study  of 
kafir  corn  during  harvest  period  (Fig.  22).  Some  of  the  points  to 
l>e  included  in  the  outline  would  be  as  follows: 


Variety  of  kafir  studios. 

Color  of  seed. 

Kelation  of  weights  of  grain  to  stover. 

Methods  of  cutting  crop. 

Method  of  cutting  the  corn  from  the 

stalk. 
Time  of  the  last  operation,  whether 

before  or  after  curing. 
Injury  from  sparrows,  mice,  and  other 

enemies. 


Protection  and  storage  of  corn. 
Uses  and  prices. 
Methods  of  marketing. 
Methods  of  using  the  stover. 
Fed  whole  to  stock. 
Run  through  a  cutter  before  feeding. 
Use  as  silage  with  or  without  water. 
Experience  of  the  grower  as  to  feeding 
value,  yield,  adaptations. 


If  this  be  the  first  field  trip  with  this  particular  crop,  certain 
other  studies  with  reference  to  distances  of  planting,  suitable  soils, 


NOTEBOOKS 


81 


seasons  of  planting,  preparation,  culture,  enemies,  etc.,  may  be 
included  in  the  outline. 

During  the  field  trip  each  student  should  have  his  attention  con- 
stantly held  to  the  subject  of  the  trip.  This  can  be  done  by  careful 
thought  and  attention  on  the  part  of  the  instructor.  En  route  to 
the  field  students  should  be  directed  to  collect  five  new  kinds  of 
legumes,  five  new  grasses,  or  five  new  kinds  of  weeds,  and  help 
each  other  name  them.  This  will  cause  them  to  make  use  of  the 
time  to  good  advantage. 

In  returning  from  the  field  let  each  student  enumerate  five  or 
more  points  which  he  learned  during  the  study.  This  will  cause 


Fio.  22. — Oklahoma  students  have  learned  that  seeds  of  kafir,  as  well  as  seeds  of  other 
crops,  should  be  selected  in  the  field  before  the  crop  is  harvested.    (H.  R.  Naylor,  El  Reno.) 

him  to  formulate  or  review  the  points  which  have  been  brought 
out  at  the  farm. 

While  making  the  study  at  the  farm  the  outline  which  has  been 
prepared  in  advance  should  be  taken  up  in  a  general  way  at  first 
and  then  each  point  in  detail  answered  by  each  student.  Certain 
questions  that  are  to  be  asked  of  the  owner  or  manager  of  the 
farm  visited  may  be  asked  preferably  by  the  students,  but  they 
may  be  asked  by  the  instructor  if  necessary.  With  high-school 
students  it  is  well  to  try  to  cultivate  their  power  to  ask  intelli- 
gent questions  instead  of  depending  upon  the  instructor  to  bring 
out  the  points. 

Notebooks  containing  outlines  for  the  trip  should  be  used  for 
the  answers  also.  The  points  entered  in  the  notebook  should  be 
the  permanent  property  of  each  student.  These  should  bo  care- 
fully examined  by  the  instructor  or  by  monitors  who  are  capable 

6 


82 


HOW  TO  TEACH  AGRONOMY 


of  pointing  out  the  good  and  weak  points  in  the  notes.    (See  also 
Chapter  IV.) 

Subjects  for  field  study  should  be  found  in  the  projects  con- 
ducted by  students,  the  crops  raised  in  the  neighborhood,  and 
special  operations  in  progress  at  different  times.  Some  of  the 


Fid.   23. — These  Wisconsin  students  are  interested  in  studying  corn  smut  in  the  field  under 
the  guidance  of  the  teacher  of  agriculture.     (S.  R.  S.,  U.  S.  D.  A.) 

topics  for  trips  may  be  suggested  by  inquiries  from  farmers  con- 
cerning certain  field  operations. 

Home  Projects  in  Agronomy. — So  much  has  already  been  said 
regarding  the  importance  of  conducting  home  projects  that  no 
arguments  in  their  behalf  need  be  offered  here.  A  suggestive  list 
of  projects  which  may  be  conducted  for  several  weeks,  months,  or 


HOME  PROJECTS  IN  AGRONOMY 


83 


years  at  the  homes  of  students  may  l>e  found  of  value  to  instructors 
and  students.  To  make  such  a  list  complete  would  require  en- 
tirely too  much  space  here.  Projects  related  to  some  of  these  will 
readily  come  to  the  rnirid  of  the  instructor. 


FHJ.  24.- 


-Ilome  project  field  of  corn  destroyed  by  army  worm.     Controlled  by  poison  bran 
mash.    Below,  same  field  after  being  protected.     (.1.  A.  Wisdom.) 


1.  Growing  one  or  several  acres  of  any  one  of  the  field  crops  for  a  single 
year,  including  preparation  of  soil,  seeding,  culture,  protection  against  diseases 
(Fig.  23),  insects  (Fig.  24)  and  other  enemies,  harvesting  the  crop,  curing, 
storing,  marketing  and  record  keeping,  including  cost  accounting  and  profits. 

2.  Grow  certain  crops  under  two  or  more  different  treatments  for  the  sake 
of  demonstrating  that  certain  treatments  are  better  than  others,  hut  incident- 
ally gaining  all  of  the  practice  and  skill  (Fig.  251,  which  would  he  gained  in 
projects  outlined  above.    Some  of  the  different  treatments  might  be  with  and 
without  lime  for  clover  or  alfalfa;  with  and  without  fertilizer  for  corn  or 
potatoes;  with  and  without  certain  fertilizer  ingredients,  as  nitrogen  or  potash 
or  phosphate,  in  the  fertilizer  mixture  for  any  field  crop;  with  and  without 


84 


HOW  IX)  TKACH  AGRONOMY 


inoculation  for  certain  legumes,  as  soybeans,  jxwnuts,  cowpeas,  velvet  beans, 
or  alfalfa;  with  and  without  drainage  for  deep-rooted  crops,  such  as  sweet 
clover,  mammoth  clover,  alfalfa,  sugar  Ix-ets,  or  mangels;  small  grains  with 
and  without  treatment  lor  smut;  comparing  the  proportion  of  grain  grown 
with  and  without  listing;  planting  wheat  on  loose  or  firm  seed  bed;  starting 
timothy  and  other  gnusses  with  and  without  the  use  of  the  roller;  comparing 
the  use  of  a  rough  roller  with  a  smooth  roller;  without  harrowing  when  sowing 
small  seeds,  such  as  millet,  clover,  or  grasses;  growing  potatoes  with  and  with- 
out treating  the  seed  to  prevent  scab  diseases. 

3.  Ixing  projects  may  include  rotation  courses  running  through  two,  three, 
or  four  years.     Such  projects,  however,  are  not  well  suited  to  school  work 
because  of  the  long  time  required. 

4.  Improvement  projects  may  include  improvement  features  such  as  grow- 
ing   corn    by   the   ear-row  method    for    the    sake   of    increasing  the  yield; 


Fio.   25. — Growing  ten  acres  of  whe.it  for  profit  makes  a  good  home  project  for  Missouri 
and  other  wheat  states.     (J.  A.  Wisdom.) 

growing  potatoes  by  the  hill-row  method  for  the  sake  of  increasing  yields; 
growing  sweet  potatoes,  cotton,  tobacco,  wheat,  or  other  crops  that  are  subject 
to  special  diseases,  and  during  the  growth  selecting  those  which  are  found  to 
be  resistant  to  the  special  disease. 

5.  In  connection  with  livestock  many  agronomy  projects  may  be  planned. 
Produce  certain  crops  suitable  for  pasture  with  hogs,  cattle,  sheep,  etc.    These 
pastures  may  be  either  permanent  or  temporary.     Improve  old  permanent 
pastures  by  fertilizing,  mowing,  liming,  harrowing,  sowing  more  seed,  or  any 
combination  of  these  treatments. 

6.  Soil  maintenance  and  soil  improvement  should  be  included  in  agronomy 
projects.     The  production  and  use  of  green  manures  for  one  or  more  seasons 
to  build  up  poor  soils;  the  regular  growth  of  green  manure  crops  in  rotation 
systems  to  aid  in  soil  maintenance;  liming  and  fertilizing  which  should  accom- 
pany  these  operations,  and  all  other  efforts  for  soil  maintenance  and  soil 
building.    (Sec  Chapter  XIIJ 

7.  Plan  soiling  systems  and  grow  the  crops  for  use  during  the  entire  season. 
This  may  be  in  connection  with  the  feeding  of  hogs  or  of  dairy  cattle. 


AGRONOMY  SURVEYS  85 

8.  Good  winter  projects  which  may  be  either  connected  with  or  independ- 
ent of  some  of  the  foregoing  projects  may  consist  of  the  management  of  the 
barnyard  manure  crop  from  a  dairy  or  other  barn.    Comparisons  of  methods 
may  lye  made  in  connection  with  the  project. 

9.  Compare  different  varieties  of  the  same  crop  with  each  other  in  field 
projects. 

10.  Compare  different  methods  of  curing  certain  hay  crops.    With  clover 
or  other  crops  which  are  cut  several  times,  this  project  may  run  through  an 
entire  season,  or  longer. 

11.  Root  crops  may  be  stored  by  different  methods  after  they  have  been 
produced  during  a  season's  project. 

12.  Certain  crops,  such  as  soybeans  and  cowpeas,  may  be  compared  with 
each  other  in  yield  of  production  and  other  points.     Compare  timothy  and 
redtop.    Compare  red  clover  with  alsike  clover  or  with  mammoth  clover. 

13.  In  pastures  compare  certain  grasses  and  legume  mixtures  with  others. 
Consider  in  this  the  amount  of  feed,  permanency,  palatability,  effects  on  soil, 
influence  of  climate,  and  any  other  points. 

14.  Grow  mangles  and  sugar  beets  and  compare  them  in  yield,  cost  of 
production,  and  feeding  value. 

15.  Grow  corn  from  seed  selected  from  the  crib  in  comparison  with  seed 
selected  from  the  field.    All  methods  used  during  the  project  should  be  other- 
wise alike. 

16.  While  growing  corn  in  any  field  project,  comparisons  may  be  made  to 
demonstrate  the  effects  of  seed  which  is  selected  from  good  and  from  bad  lots 
with  reference  to  all  of  the  points  in  the  corn  score  card:  good  and  bad  tips; 
good  and  bad  butts;  large  and  small  cobs;  pure  and  mixed  seed;  long  and  short 
ears;  mixed  or  uniform  kernels  on  cobs;  one  or  more  ears  to  the  stalk,  etc. 

17.  Grow  wheat  by  early  and  late  planting  to  study  the  influence  of  the 
Hessian  fly. 

18.  Grow  cotton  with  and  without  the  best  methods  of  combating  the 
boll  weevil. 

19.  Grow  flax  chiefly  for  seed  and  chiefly  for  fiber,  comparing  the  profits. 

20.  Grow  small  grains  with  and  without  sufficient  soil  cover  to  prevent 
winter  blowing  of  soil. 

21.  Where  possible,  crops  may  be  grown  with  and  without  irrigation  to 
compare  results  in  yields,  cost,  character  of  product,  etc. 

22.  Compare  results  in  depth  of  planting  while  growing  Irish  potatoes 
for  a  season. 

23.  Grow  Irish   potatoes  by  the    level,  high-ridging,  and  slight-ridging 
methods,  comparing  results. 

24.  Transplanting  studies  may  be  made  in  connection  with  projects  that 
require  transplanting,  such  as  cabbage,  tobacco,  and  sweet  potatoes.    If  pos- 
sible, compare  hand  and  machine  transplanting. 

Agronomy  Surveys. — To  make  complete  community  surveys  of 
the  whole  field  of  agronomy  would  be  very  troublesome  to  the 
farmers  answering  the  questions  and  would  consume  very  much 
time  on  the  part  of  the  students  and  instructors.  It  is  usually 
better  to  make  surveys  on  limited  topics.  Some  instructors  have 
adopted  the  plan  of  using  cards  about  4  by  6  or  5  by  8  inches, 
which  usually  may  be  arranged  in  order  of  subjects  and  in  alpha- 
betical order.  The  questions  of  the  survey  are  put  on  these  cards 
with  room  left  for  the  answers.  The  questions  may  be  put  on  with 


80 


HOW  TO  TEACH  AGRONOMY 


the  mineograph  or  the  hectograph.  The  cards  are  sent  home  by 
the  students  and  are  returned  the  next  day  or  very  soon.  The 
answering  of  the  questions  on  one  card  will  not  l>e  tiresome  to 
either  the  student  or  the  farmer.  A  number  of  surveys  may  be 
made  along  through  the  term,  each  one  of  which  is  intensive  enough 
to  give  the  information  desired  for  class  study. 

Unit  Subjects  for  Agronomy  Surveys. — Early  in  the  term  a  list 
of  the  surveys  in  agronomy  which  will  likely  be  wanted  may  be 
planned  and  arranged  in  suitable  order.  The  following  list 
be  suggestive: 


Practice  in  green  manuring  and  use 

of  cover  crops. 
Methods  of  plowing  and  other  tillage 

practices. 

Soilage  and  soiling  crops. 
Silage  and  silage  crops. 
Methods  of  corn  production. 
Alfalfa  and  special  legumes. 
The  clover  group. 
Small  grains. 
Pastures  and  hay  crops. 
Weed  troubles  and  noxious  weeds. 


Field  crop  diseases  and  their  control. 
Field  crop  insects  and  their  control. 
Methods  of  producing  root  crops. 
Special  fiber  crops,  as  cotton,   flax, 

and  others. 

Sorghums,  kafir,  and  millet. 
Summer  legumes:  soybeans,  cowpeas, 

and  velvet  beans. 

Irish  potatoes  and  sweet  potatoes. 
Special  crops  of  the  region,  as  sugar 

beets  or  tobacco. 
Rotation  systems. 


Sample  Outline  for  Small  Agronomy  Surveys.1 — A  suggestive 
outline  is  here  given  to  be  used  or  modified  for  any  region  where  the 
survey  is  desired.  These  questions  may  be  arranged  on  a  card  to 
suit  its  size  and  the  space  necessary  for  the  answers.  Suppose  we 
are  to  study  the  subject  of  Irish  potatoes.  The  answers  to  the 
following  questions  will  be  very  helpful  in  the  study: 


Name  of  grower. 

Renter  or  owner. 

Acres  of  potatoes  grown  last  year. 

This  year. 

Yield. 

Cost  of  soil  preparation. 

Date  of  planting. 

What  crop  precedes  the  potatoes? 

When  is  soil  plowed? 

Depth  of  plowing. 

Number  of  hanowings. 

Tyjx's  of  harrows  used. 

Method  of  planting. 

Distances  between  rows. 

Size  of  pieces. 

Cost  of  seed  per  acre. 

Sources. 


Varieties  grown. 

Is  seed  treated  before  planting? 

How? 

Cost. 

Is  field  harrowed  after  planting? 

Times  and  methods  of  cultiva- 
tion? 

Cost  of  horse  and  hand  labor  for 
tillage. 

Fertilizers  used. 

Rate. 

When  used? 

Cost. 

Treatment  for  insects. 

Cost. 

Treatment  for  blight. 

Cost . 


1  See  Survey  suggestions,  Chapters  VI  to  XII. 


CHARTS  ON  FIELD  CROPS                                 87 

Rows  highly  ridged,  level,  or  medium  MetluxJs   of    picking,    bagging,    and 

when  "laid  by."  crating. 

I  land  hoeing  or  other  tillage.  Methods  of  storage. 


Methods  of  digging.  i 

.p.  Shrinkage  during  storage. 


Is  field  harrowed  and  gleaned? 

Is  seed  selected  at  digging  time?  Prices  received. 

How?  Cost  of  harvesting. 

Methods  and  rules  for  sorting.  What  crop  follows  potatoes? 

Use  of  Survey  Returns.  —  When  the  cards  containing  the  answers 
to  these  or  any  other  agronomy  survey  are  brought  back  to  the 
school,  some  study  will  be  required  to  make  use  of  the  information 
contained  therein.  If  the  number  of  cards  returned  runs  into  the 
hundreds,  it  may  be  necessary  to  tabulate  the  answers.  A  small 
table  relating  to  the  acres,  yields,  cost,  and  profit  may  l>e  made  and 
the  information  entered  in  the  table  independent  of  other  details. 
Another  table  may  be  made  which  will  include  soil  preparation, 
tillage,  methods,  and  harvesting.  Still  another  table  may  in- 
clude the  points  related  to  fertilizers,  rotation,  etc. 

In  case  the  number  of  cards  returned  is  very  few,  not  much 
larger  than  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  class,  the  work  of  adjusting 
the  information  is  much  easier.  No  tabulation  is  then  necessary. 
The  results  regarding  each  of  the  points  may  be  put  on  paper  or 
cards.  A  heading  of  the  subject  or  the  question  is  written  at  the 
top  of  the  card,  and  at  the  bottom  are  given  the  average  or  con- 
clusions of  the  whole  matter. 

The  work  of  summarizing  a  survey  may  be  done  by  members  of 
the  class,  each  part  being  assigned  to  students  working  in  pairs  or 
other  small  groups.  This  work  may  be  done  during  the  regular 
study  period  for  that  subject. 

The  value  of  the  information  gleaned  from  such  a  survey  is  very 
evident  to  students  and  instructor  who  have  successfully  con- 
ducted and  digested  an  agronomy  survey. 

Charts  on  Field  Crops.  —  By  referring  to  Chapter  XVI  it  will  be 
seen  that  suggestions  are  given  regarding  the  making  and  use  of 
charts  in  the  teaching  of  agriculture.  In  the  subject  of  field  crops 
a  number  of  special  charts  should  be  prepared.  One  good  series  of 
charts  to  be  made  by  the  student  or  by  the  school  would  be  out- 
lines of  the  different  subjects.  Let  a  chart  be  made  giving  a  sylla- 
bus of  the  study  of  wheat  growing,  another  on  oats,  barley,  rye. 
millets,  common  clover,  other  clovers,  small  legumes,  wintei 
legumes,  alfalfa,  sweet  clover,  cotton,  corn  production,  corn  seed 


88  HOW  TO  TEACH  AGRONOMY 

selection,  sorghums,  sugar  beets,  mangles,  Irish  potatoes,  sweet 
potatoes,  timothy,  pasture  grasses,  other  grasses,  etc. 

Another  good  series  of  charts  could  be  made  from  small  pub- 
lished charts  showing  the  distribution  of  each  of  the  crops.  A 
chart  showing  comparative  yields  of  field  crops  would  be  valuable. 
A  composition  chart  showing  the  relative  composition  of  each  of 
the  farm  crops  as  feed  crops  could  be  easily  made. 

Charts  showing  the  relative  production  of  each  of  the  crops 
locally  should  be  made.  Take  a  single  county,  for  example,  and 
from  surveys  or  from  a  census  report  show  the  relative  production 
in  bars  of  different  length  across  the  chart. 

Make  graphs  from  the  results  of  the  local  surveys.  Some  of 
these  may  show  the  relative  cost  of  production  of  different  crops. 
Others  may  show  relative  dates  of  planting.  Others  may  show 
yields.  Others  may  show  cost  of  harvesting,  or  cost  of  cultivation, 
or  cost  of  any  other  operation  of  importance.  When  these  graphs 
are  placed  on  permanent  cloth  charts,  they  become  very  valuable 
for  ready  reference. 

Charts  showing  different  methods  of  treatment  are  easy  to  de- 
vise. Assign  the  task  to  students  who  have  done  tabulating  or 
otherwise  digested  the  results  of  local  surveys.  Suppose,  for  ex- 
ample, that  the  hilling  of  corn,  or  cotton,  or  some  other  crop  is  to  be 
contrasted  with  level  culture  of  the  same  crop.  If  the  local  survey 
or  some  one  student's  trial  has  shown  a  contrast  in  results  under 
the  two  methods,  let  the  matter  be  worked  up  into  a  chart  giving 
the  results  of  the  two  methods  in  figures,  snowing  them  in  bars 
or  in  sectors  of  circles. 

Methods  of  growing  crops  with  or  without  lime,  with  or  without 
inoculation,  with  or  without  fertilizers,  with  or  without  certain 
special  soil  treatments,  as  rolling  or  extra  disking,  may  be  good  sub- 
jects for  charts.  If  the  crop  be  a  hay  crop,  relative  sizes  of  stacks 
or  of  hay  shocks  may  be  shown  on  the  chart.  Conclusions  at  the 
bottom  of  each  chart  may  be  expressed  in  a  line  or  two  of  well- 
chosen  words 

Other  good  subjects  in  agronomy  for  charts  to  be  used  in 
schools  are  composition  of  corn;  structure  of  grains  of  wheat, 
barley,  oats  or  rye;  types  of  kernels  of  corn;  types  of  heads  of 
different  varieties  of  wheat;  heads  of  barley;  methods  of  cutting 
potatoes;  methods  of  tillage;  types  of  tillage  implements;  cross 
sections  showing  structure  of  fanning  mill,  and  cross  section  of 
threshing  machine  showing  sources  of  waste. 


SKILL  IN  PLOWING  89 

Alfalfa  Chart. — If  it  be  the  desire  of  the  class  to  make  a  chart  on 
alfalfa  growing,  the  following  may  be  the  chief  lines  of  the  chart: 

Select  rich,  well-drained  soil.  Inoculate  naturally  or  artificially. 

Keep  free  from  weeds  and  weed  seed.  Cut  frequently  at  right  time. 

Choose  pure,  strong  seed.  Cure  carefully. 

Sow  at  proper  time.  Maintain  field  properly. 

Use  proper  amount  of  seed.  Supply  plenty  of  lime. 

Skills  in  Agronomy.2 — Modern  methods  of  teaching  require  that 
students  become  skilful  in  the  chief  operations  which  they  are  to 
perform  in  actual  field  work.  Schools  are  rapidly  getting  away  from 
teaching  merely  by  theory.  Practice  must  go  with  it. 

Some  of  the  chief  operations  in  field-crop  production  which  re- 
quire skill  on  the  part  of  the  operator  are  the  following:  Plowing, 
disking,  drilling  seeds,  sowing  seeds  broadcast,  sowing  seeds  with 
hand  seeders,  seed  corn  selection,  cotton  seed  selection,  selection  of 
seed  wheat,  seed  oats,  seed  barley,  etc.,  harvesting,  hay  making, 
judging  maturity,  judging  condition  of  soil,  judging  moisture 
requirements  and  conditions,  estimating  yields,  judging  products 
for  market. 

Skill  in  Plowing. — This  can  best  be  taught  by  actual  practice, 
but  the  student  should  consider  a  few  things  in  advance:  the  ad- 
justment of  plows,  the  depth  of  plowing  condition  of  soil,  season, 
requirements  of  the  crop  to  be  grown  next,  etc.  I^et  the  student 
have  practice  in  plowing  under  sod  soils,  as  in  plowing  stubble  land 
or  green  manure  crops  such  as  high  weeds,  rye,  and  clover. 

Plowing  contests  may  be  organized  and  the  work  of  each  student 
judged  according  to  the  following  points: 

Uniformity  of  depth.  Perfect  working  of  the  plow,  includ- 
Uniformity  of  width  of  furrow  slice.  ing  scouring  of  the  moldboard. 

Complete  covering  of  material  turned  Rate    of    plowing    and    general    ap- 

under.  pearance. 

Ease  and  manner  of  operation. 

These  points  and  any  others  which  may  occur  to  the  judges  may 
be  used  in  formulating  a  score  card  for  plowing.  Let  all  of  the 
operators  have  conditions  which  are  similar,  or  as  nearly  alike 
as  possible. 

Instructors  should  judge  the  plowing  done  by  students  in  their 
home  projects.  The  score  card  will  be  useful  for  this  purpose. 

2  See  also  Chapter  IV. 


90  HOW  TO  TEACH  AGRONOMY 

Skill  in  disking  is  required  in  preparation  of  soils.  Bad  disking 
is  often  seen  where  the  land  is  left  in  ridges,  or  where  the  center  line 
of  the  disked  strip  is  left  unturned,  or  where  the  disk  does  not 
scour  and  therefore  does  not  turn  the  soil  well. 

If  desired,  a  score  card  may  be  made  covering  these  and  other 
points  in  disking. 

Drilling  Seeds. — Skill  is  required  in  drilling  so  that  the  stand  of 
grain  or  grass  or  legume  will  he  uniform  and  leave  no  vacant  strips 
or  thinly  seeded  strips.  Too  thick  seeding  is  sometimes  a  fault.  The 
chief  points  to  be  observed  are:  Adjustment  of  the  sower;  preven- 
tion of  clogging  by  foreign  materials  in  the  seed  bags;  careful  drill- 
ing to  avoid  lapping  and  skipping;  laying  off  a  true  land  by  straight 
lines  well  sighted  through  the  field;  Adjustment  of  depth  of  shoes, 
hoes,  or  disks:  condition  of  soil  at  time  of  drilling;  constant  and 
uniform  supply  of  seed  in  boxes;  frequent  mixing  of  contents  of 
box;  quick  discovery  of  failure  of  seed  to  drop  in  auy  of  the  tubes; 
suitable  treatment  of  soils  immediately  after  drilling. 

Let  a  score  card  be  made  giving  proper  values  to  each  of  these 
points,  with  proper  cuts  designated  for  partial  failure  in  each  case. 
Let  students  study  the  score  card  and  then  practice  drilling  with 
each  of  the  points  in  mind  during  the  operation. 

Other  Methods  of  Seeding. — Certain  portions  of  the  score  card 
may  be  revalued  for  use  in  scoring  other  methods  of  seeding,  either 
by  hand  sowing,  wheelbarrow  sowing,  fiddle  sowing,  crank  sowing, 
or  wagon-gate  sowing. 

Seed-Corn  Selection. — Score  cards  have  long  been  in  use  for  the 
selection  of  seed  coin.  These  should  be  used  so  that  the  points  will 
come  to  the  mind  of  the  operator  without  consulting  the  printed 
page.  Rapid  selection  is  necessary.  Let  students  take  piles  of 
corn  and  sort  them  into  three  or  four  grades.  The  instructor  may 
frequently  stop  and  question  the  propriety  of  throwing  certain 
ears  into  the  first,  second,  or  third  grade. 

Field  selection  of  seed  corn  is  even  more  important  to  the  edu- 
cated student  of  agriculture  (Fig.  2(5).  Make  a  score  card  for 
field  selection  covering  the  following  points  in  addition  to  those  usu- 
ally included  in  the  score  card  already  referred  to: 

Number  of  oars  to  the  stalk.  Size  of  ear. 

Height  of  ears  on  the  stalk.  Maturity  of  ear  as  shown  by  husks 

Proportion   of    sterile   stalks    in   the  or  otherwise. 

vieinity.  Freedom     from     smut     and     other 

Degree  of  covering  of  tips  by  husks.  disease. 

Degree  of  drooping  of  ear.  Other  points. 


FIELD  SELECTION  OF  SEED  CORN 


91 


muB^^^s^.-^ 

2F'-***£*\  '••*•  ?v  • ';-V^ 

Flo.   20. — Students  should  have  actual  practice  in  the  field  selection  of  seed  corn.     T'pper, 
prepared  for  the  work.     Center,  making  the  selection.     Lower,  corn  in  form  for  drymc  and 

storing-     (3.  A.  Wisdom.) 


92 


HOW  TO  TEACH  AGRONOMY 


Students  should  become  familiar  with  this  score  card  by  prac- 
ticing field  selection  and  discussing  each  of  the  points  for  a  short 
time.  After  this,  considerable  drilling  may  be  advisable  so  that 
the  operator  will  almost  intuitively  select  the  proper  ears. 

Field  Selecting  of  Seed  Cotton.— (Figs.  27  and  28).   The  chief 


Fio.  27. — This  Alabama  student  cleared  FIG.  28. — These  South  Carolina  students  realized 

$127    on    his    project    with    two    acres  the  importance  of  planting  pedigreed  cotton-seed. 

of   cotton  while  attending   high   school.  Dividing  the  lot  of  seed.    (L.  M.  Banknight.) 
(H.  A.  Savage.) 

points  to  be  considered  in  selecting  seed  for  cotton  in  the  field  be- 
fore picking  the  main  crop  are  the  following : 


Prolificacy,  number  of  bolls  to  the 
plant. 

Size  of  bolls,  and  perfect  develop- 
ment. 

Storm  resistance  or  degree  of  opening 
of  bolls. 

Earliness. 

Short  mternodes. 


Number  of  side  limbs  or  branches. 
Length   of    lint,   and    uniformity   of 

length. 

Trueness  to  variety. 
Large  proportion  of  lint  to  seed. 
Freedom  from  wilt,  rust,  boll-rot  or 

other  disease. 


Students  should  practice  the  field  selection  of  seed  cotton  with 
the  points  of  this  score  card  clearly  in  mind.  The  more  practice 
they  get  in  this  the  more  skill  they  will  attain.  They  should  become 
so  proficient  as  not  to  need  to  be  questioned  on  the  points  during 
the  operation. 

Field  Selection  of  Seed  Wheat. — -In  wheat  breeding  it  is  pos- 
sible to  find  certain  heads  of  wheat  that  are  superior  to  others.  It 
is  practical  for  a  few  seed  breeders  in  each  county  to  improve  the 
wheat  of  the  region  by  careful  selection  of  individual  heads.  The 
yield  can  thus  be  increased  in  quality  and  quantity. 

In  practice  it  is  best  fon  all  wheat  growers  who  intend  to  save 
their  own  seed  wheat  to  go  to  those  parts  of  the  field  where  the 


SKILL  IN  HAY  MAKING  93 

heads  are  best  filled,  where  the  grain  is  mature,  where  the  ripening 
is  even,  where  the  height  of  stalks  is  uniformly  good ;  here  cut  the 
^rain  and  save  it  separately  for  seed  purposes.  The  seed  wheat 
may  Ix;  run  through  a  seed  threshing  machine  before  the  main  crop 
is  threshed. 

Where  individual  heads  are  to  be  selected,  as  in  wheat  breeding, 
keep  the  following  points  in  mind: 

Select  large,  well-filled  heads. 

Stalks  that  are  strong  and  support  their  heads  well. 

Plants  that  are  well  tillered  or  stooled;  the  larger  the  number 
of  plants  to  the  stalk  the  better. 

Wheat  true  to  variety. 

Kernels  plump  and  uniformly  mature. 

Disease  resistance  and  plants  free  from  rust  and  smut. 

In  wheat-growing  regions  it  is  well  to  let  students  practice  the 
selection  of  individual  heads  until  they  become  skilful  in  the  opera- 
tion. There  is  practically  as  great  a  possibility  of  improving  wheat 
and  other  small  grains  by  field  selection  as  there  is  of  improving  the 
yield  of  corn  by  this  method. 

Skill  in  Harvesting.— (Fig.  25.)  Running  of  grain  binders, 
corn  harvesters,  mowers,  and  performing  similar  cropping  opera- 
tions should  be  practiced  enough  by  students  under  instruction 
to  make  them  skilful  in  all  the  details.  In  running  a  corn  binder 
the  operator  should  become  skilful  enough  to  avoid  troubles 
regarding  knives  pulling  the  stubble  from  the  ground,  clogging 
of  the  carrier  chains,  failure  to  tie  the  bundles,  failure  to  throw 
or  properly  carry  the  bundles,  or  unnecessary  dulling  of  knives  by 
too  low  cutting. 

In  running  a  grain  binder  the  operator  must  be  able  to  make  the 
machine  work  well  on  both  level  and  hilly  ground ;  he  must  quickly 
adjust  it  to  high  and  low  grain  if  the  stand  be  uneven;  he  must 
know  conditions  which  will  make  the  apron  work  well  under  all 
circumstances;  he  must  carefully  adjust  the  "butter"  to  suit  dif- 
ferent heights  of  grain;  he  must  be  a  good  judge  of  maturity  of 
grain;  he  must  understand  the  faults  of  the  knotter;  he  should 
govern  the  rate  of  driving  to  obtain  uniformly  even  results  with 
his  machine. 

Skill  in  Hay  Making. — The  novice  has  admiration  for  the  skil- 
ful hay  maker.  To  obtain  skill  one  must  give  attention  to  a  number 
of  points,  chief  among  which  are  the  following:  Judging  maturity 
of  crop  to  be  cut;  weather  conditions;  facilities  for  curing;  time  in 


94 


HOW  TO  TEACH  AGRONOMY 


which  the  kind  of  crop  may  be  expected  to  cure  most  rapidly;  ef- 
fects of  dew  or  showers  on  the  particular  crop;  conditions  in  which 
the  crop  can  best  stand  these,  whether  in  swath  or  in  shock;  best 
conditions  for  handling  to  prevent  loss  of  leaves;  special  equipment 
required  for  particular  crops  or  seasons,  as  hay  caps,  and  drying 
frames;  degree  of  moisture  (outside  or  internal  moisture)  allowable 
for  satisfactory  curing  in  shock,  stack,  or  mow;  what  to  do  in  case 
of  heating;  judging  degree  of  heating  allowable  without  injury; 
estimating  weight  of  hay,  loose  and  settled.  More  will  be  said 


FIG.   29. — These  Louisiana  students  learn  to  select  seed  corn  by  careful  laboratory  study. 
(P.  1,.  (iuilbeau.) 

regarding  skill  in  operation  of  machinery  under  the  subject  of 
farm  mechanics. 

Skill  in  Judging  Products. — A  successful  farmer  cannot  be  too 
skilful  in  judging  the  products  of  his  farm.  He  should  know  the 
market  requirements  and  the  market  grades  of  his  crops. 

Many  exercises  in  judging  field-crop  products  should  be  con- 
ducted at  the  school  or  at  homes  when  products  are  harvested 
before  they  are  marketed.  Use  score  cards  for  each  of  the  crops  so 
far  as  they  are  available.  Learn  to  know  the  market  grades  of 
wheat,  corn  (Figs.  29  and  30),  potatoes,  oats,  barley,  rye,  clover 
seeds,  grass  seeds,  alfalfa,  timothy,  clover  hay,  other  kinds  of  hay, 
and  indeed  all  market  crops.3 

3  S<-(>  Montgomery's  "Productive  Farm  Crops"  and  other  books  giving 
market  grades  of  different  products. 


STORAGE  OF  AGRONOMY  MATERIALS  95 

Practice  in  judging  the  leading  crops  of  the  region  will  make 
students  skilful  in  grading  the  products.  For  example,  if  hay  is  a 
common  market  crop  for  the  region,  it  should  be  judged  frequently 
and  abundantly.  Grading  of  corn  is  likely  to  be  an  important  ex- 
ercise throughout  the  region  where  corn  is  grown.  Judge  cotton 
in  regions  where  cotton  is  sold.  Judge  tobacco  if  that  is  the  im- 
portant crop  of  the  locality.  Grading  of  wheat  should  be  repeated 
over  and  over  until  the  students  are  as  skilful  and  rapid  as  the 
expert.  If  this  be  done,  there  will  be  less  disappointment  when 
farmers  take  their  products  to  market. 

General  Equipment. — Use  the  apparatus  from  the  science  de- 
partment so  far  as  it  is  available  for  the  work  in  hand.  There  are 


FIG.   30. — Having  studied  the  selection  of  seed  corn,  these  students  have  prepared  their  ten- 
ear  samples  for  a  judging  contest  and  show. 

lenses,  microscope,  chemicals,  and  a  number  of  other  articles  of 
equipment  in  the  science  departments  that  will  be  useful  in  lessons 
with  crops. 

The  laboratory  where  the  work  in  agronomy  is  to  be  done  should 
be  provided  with  work  tables,  sink,  running  water,  cases,  con- 
tainers for  illustrative  material,  cupboards  with  glass  doors  with 
materials  that  should  be  conspicuous,  and  cupboards  with  wood 
doors  for  other  articles.  These  should  contain  drawers  and  shelves. 

Storage  of  Agronomy  Materials.4 — The  laboratory  should  be 
equipped  with  mouse-proof  cupboards  or  a  mouse-proof  room.  This 
is  very  important  for  the  storage  of  corn,  grain  heads,  grass  heads, 
sorghum,  kafir,  and  other  materials  which  are  likely  to  be  at- 
tacked by  mice  and  rats. 

If  the  mouse-proof  cupboard  is  provided,  it  should  have  some 
drawers  lined  with  zinc,  galvanized  iron,  or  with  hardware  wire  cloth. 

4  See  also  Chapter  XV. 


96  HOW  TO  TEACH  AGRONOMY 

There  should  lx>  plenty  of  room  on  the  sheives  for  corn  trays, 
each  containing  a  sample  of  ten  ears.  Enough  of  these  trays  should 
be  provided  for  class  use. 

A  large  mouse-proof  cupboard  can  be  easily  constructed  by  a 
carpenter  if  plans  are  furnished  him.  If  the  cupboard  is  to  be  built 
stationary  in  the  corner  of  the  laboratory,  the  corner  should  first 
be  covered  with  metal  or  wire  cloth.  The  cupboard  can  then  be 
constructed  and  lined  with  the  mouse-proof  material.  After  lining, 
the  shelves  and  drawers  can  be  put  in,  and  metal-lined  doors  should 
be  made  to  fit  very  snugly. 

If  such  a  cupboard  is  constructed  carefully,  it  can  be  made 
nearly  air-tight  by  having  molding  over  the  edges  of  the  doors. 
This  feature  will  make  the  cupboard  suitable  for  fumigation 
with  carbon  bisulfide  or  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  This  provi- 
sion will  make  it  possible  to  store  materials  through  the  warm 
season  and  destroy  grain  moths  which  would  otherwise  ruin  much 
of  the  collection. 

Arrangement  of  Room.5 — If  the  recitation  is  to  be  conducted  in 
the  same  room  where  laboratory  work  is  performed,  it  is  well  to 
have  the  cupboards  containing  materials  and  apparatus  along  one 
side  of  the  room,  perhaps  on  the  side  opposite  the  windows  or  chief 
source  of  light.  Arrange  the  work  tables  along  the  back  half 
of  the  room,  but  allow  passageways  all  around  them.  Suitable 
laboratory  seats  should  be  provided  around  these  tables.  In  the 
front  half  of  the  room  it  is  best  to  have  the  recitation  seats,  perhaps 
chairs  with  side  arms;  a  blackboard  and  a  good  demonstration 
table;  have  sink  and  running  water  in  it  at  the  front  of  the  room  or 
at  one  side.  The  demonstration  table  should  be  boxed  in  below 
and  contain  drawers  and  compartments  for  such  apparatus  as  is 
needed  for  demonstration  during  the  recitation  periods. 

A  separate  laboratory  is  often  possible  and  usually  desirable. 
This  of  course  would  be  found  in  colleges  and  perhaps  issome  normal 
and  high  schools.  If  the  recitation  room  be  separated  from  the 
laboratory,  it  is  well  to  have  in  the  recitation  room  suitable  demon- 
stration material,  a  suitable  table,  running  water,  blackboard, 
illustrative  materials  on  shelves,  curtain  and  stereopticon  for  illus- 
trative purposes,  sets  of  charts  and  chart  holders,  and  perhaps  one 
or  two  side  tables  for  keeping  demonstration  exercises  before  the 
class  for  several  days.5 

6  See  Chapter  XV. 


LABORATORY  CONTAINERS  AND  DISHES  97 

Container  for  Specimens.6—  -Get  largo  and  small  galvanized  iron 
cans  with  tops  which  cover  over  the  can  evenly.  These  should  l>e 
provided  for  keeping  supplies  of  small  grains,  corn,  grass  seeds, 
etc.  These  cans  may  be  of  several  sizes;  perhaps  one-half  peck,  one 
peck,  and  two  peck  will  suffice.  Smaller  cans  may  be  used  for  soil 
specimens  to  be  used  in  demonstrations  and  experiments.  When 
used  for  grains,  these  cans  have  the  advantage  of  keeping  away 
both  mice  and  grain  moths.  They  are  also  suitable  for  use  in  fumi- 
gating materials  infested  with  insects. 

Large-mouthed  bottles  with  glass  stoppers  or  cork  stoppers  are 
valuable  for  keeping  grain  heads,  grass  heads,  and  other  specimens 
which  are  to  be  shown  frequently  but  not  removed  from  the  bottles 
for  laboratory  purposes.  Small  vials  should  be  provided  for 
seed  specimens  to  be  passed  around  or  used  by  students  in 
the  laboratory  while  making  comparisons  with  materials  they 
are  studying. 

Laboratory  containers  and  dishes  are  necessary  for  the  study  of 
samples  of  grains  and  seeds.  Each  student  will  need  several  of 
these  and  suitable  dishes  should  be  provided.  (Hazed  paper  bowls 
or  trays  may  be  purchased.  These  an;  rather  durable  and  may  be 
used  a  number  of  times.  They  have  the  added  advantage  of  being 
inexpensive.  Glass  Pctri  dishes  are  suitable  for  a  number  of  soils 
experiments  but  are  rather  expensive  and  easily  broken.  They  are 
sometimes  used,  however,  as  seed  containers  on  laboratory  tables. 
Small  tin  pie  pans  and  earthen  flower  saucers  are  also  used  by 
some  schools.  There  should  be  grain-judging  trays  and  corn-judg- 
ing trays.  These  may  be  made  of  wood  or  metal. 

Trays  for  small  grains  may  consist  of  ordinary  dining-room  trays 
with  pint  tin  cups  or  glass  tumblers  for  holding  the  samples. 

Vial  trays  may  be  made  by  boring  holes  half-way  through  a 
thick  board.  These  holes  are  of  a  size  to  suit  the  diameter  of  the 
vials  used.  Such  trays  will  facilitate  the  handling  of  samples  of 
economic  seeds,  weed  seeds,  corn  products,  feed  samples,  fertilizer 
samples,  and  others.  The  size  of  bottles  used  in  these  trays  may 
vary  considerably  from  the  smallest  vials  to  bottles  two  inches  in 
diameter  if  desired.  These  trays  should  be  made  in  the  school  shop 
or  laboratory.  An  expansion  bit  owned  by  the  shop  will  be  useful 
in  making  such  trays. 

Bottle  racks  may  be  made  by  boring  holes  through  small  strips 
used  as  shelves.  These  are  arranged  in  tiers  in  racks  resembling 

6  Sec  Chapter  XV. 

7 


98  HOW  TO  TEACH  AGRONOMY 

large  test-tube  racks.  One  form  of  rack  for  holding  milk-bottle 
samples  is  sold  by  agricultural  laboratory  supply  houses.  Such 
racks  have  advantages  over  the  trays  if  the  samples  are  to  be  on 
exhibition  and  are  not  to  be  handled  by  the  students  in  laboratory 
exercises.  Any  long  series  of  samples,  as  the  various  products  from 
a  flour  mill,  may  be  well  arranged  in  a  wall  bottle  rack. 

Seed-corn  crates,  corn  dryers  „  corn  trees,  and  wire  stretchers 
for  seed  corn  are  all  needed. 

Supply  small  tin  cans  of  various  sizes  for  use  in  various  exer- 
cises with  grains.  A  few  cans  or  pans  of  standard  measures,  such 
as  the  dry  quart,  half  peck,  peck,  half  bushel,  and  bushel  should 
be  available  for  use. 

Small  boxes  of  uniform  size  are  valuable  in  handling  heads  of 
grains  as  well  as  threshed  samples.  Pasteboard  boxes  of  many  sizes 
are  always  useful.  Specimens  of  heads  may  be  sewed  to  card- 
boards of  black  or  other  suitable  colors.  These  are  then  pasted  at 
the  corners  into  the  bottoms  of  the  boxes.  When  such  specimens  are 
kept  on  exhibition  they  may  be  sprayed  with  an  alcoholic  solution 
of  corrosive  sublimate  to  keep  away  pests.  The  boxes  may  then 
be  covered  with  glass  fastened  securely  in  place  with  passepar- 
tout binding. 

Agronomy  Apparatus. — A  few  important  pieces  of  agronomy 
apparatus  should  be  found  in  the  high-school  laboratory. 

There  should  be  one  or  more  types  of  corn  cleaners,  wood  or 
metal  grain  measures,  scales  for  weighing  grains  and  soils,  standard 
seed  testers  (incubator  type),  or  substitutes  in  the  way  of  sawdust 
or  sand  lx>xes. 

Illustrative  Supplies  in  Agronomy. — The  laboratory  or  class- 
room should  contain  types  of  corn,  small  grains,  legumes,  kafir, 
milo,  grasses,  weeds,  buckwheat,  flax,  rice,  cotton,  millets,  hemp, 
and  other  miscellaneous  crops.  All  of  these  should  be  represented 
in  several  forms,  as  sheaf  heads  of  the  different  types,  entire 
plants,  and  as  threshed  samples.  Fiber  crops  should  be  represented 
also  by  the  products  in  different  stages  of  preparation.  Root  and 
tuber  crops  may  be  represented  by  specimens  preserved  in  two 
per  cent  formalin  solution  in  glass  jars. 

The  illustrative  materials  should  include  not  only  perfect 
specimens  but  also  those  attacked  by  insects  and  diseases. 

Samples  of  roots  of  the  various  crops  are  often  helpful  in  teach- 
ing methods  of  tillage  and  adaptation  of  the  crops  to  soils.  Such 
roots  may  be  preserved  in  two  per  cent  formalin. 


CONSUMABLE  SUPPLIES  99 

The  by-products  of  corn,  wheat,  oats,  flax,  cotton,  and  other 
manufactured  articles  should  be  shown. 

There  should  be  samples  of  any  or  all  of  the  above  crops,  show- 
ing ranges  in  size,  yields,  abnormalities,  effects  of  fertilizers,  and 
effects  of  inoculation.  Standard  market  grades  of  the  leading 
grains  should  be  available  for  comparative  purposes  in  teaching 
these  standards  to  students. 

How  to  show  illustrative  samples  without  using  too  much  space 
in  the  laboratory  or  class-room  is  a  problem  which  each  instructor 
will  wish  to  solve  in  his  own  way.  Suggestions  regarding  the  show- 
ing of  sheaf  heads  sewed  on  cards  in  the  bottom  of  boxes  covered 
with  glass  have  already  been  given.  Threshed  samples,  cleaned  or 
uncleaned,  diseased  or  uninjured,  may  be  shown  in  bottles  held 
in  racks  or  attached  by  clips  which  are  fastened  to  heavy  pulp  board 
hanging  on  the  walls.  Such  bottle  clips  or  holders  may  be  pur- 
chased from  laboratory  supply  houses.  Standard  sizes  of  paste- 
board, e.g.,  22  by  28  inches,  should  be  adopted  by  each  school  so 
that  all  the  cards  may  easily  be  stored  away  from  the  dust  when 
not  needed. 

Some  schools  have  adopted  the  plan  of  attaching  the  paste- 
Ixmrds  to  wooden  frames.  They  are  then  properly  labeled  on  the 
edge  of  the  frame  and  are  stored  by  sliding  them  into  grooves  in  a 
cabinet  made  for  the  purpose. 

Consumable  Supplies. — For  labeling  specimens  in  laboratory 
work  as  well  as  in  permanent  collections,  there  should  be  a  supply 
of  blank  labels.  Some  of  these  will  need  to  be  on  gummed  paper. 
Others  should  be  of  wood,  particularly  for  germination  experiments, 
soil  tests,  etc.  When  wood  labels  are  to  be  kept  for  some  time  in 
field  experiments,  they  should  be  painted  with  a  coat  of  white  lead 
and  oil.  Labels  of  this  kind  written  with  soft  black  lead  will  be 
very  durable.  Sticks  may  be  made  smooth  enough  to  serve  such 
a  purpose,  or  wood  labels  of  the  kind  used  in  orchard  work  may 
be  fastened  to  the  sticks  with  soft  wire.  Metal  labels  will  be  useful 
in  field  experiments.  They  may  be  made  of  very  soft  tin,  as  pure 
tin  or  leaded  tin.  When  very  soft,  names  may  be  written  on  them 
with  a  hard  stylus  after  the  metal  is  tacked  to  a  wooden  stick 
or  other  support.  These  are  somewhat  more  permanent  than 
plain  wooden  labels. 

In  testing  seeds  and  in  similar  exercises  there  should  be  available 
for  use  a  supply  of  sphagnum  moss,  clean  sharp  sand,  sawdust, 
and  cloths  for  use  with  these  materials. 


100  HOW  TO  TEACH  AGRONOMY 

There  should  t>e  a  supply  of  all  available  fertilizer  materials 
which  are  to  be  used  in  mixing  exercises.  Aside  from  this  there 
should  be,  of  course,  fertilizers  for  consumption  in  the  actual  growth 
of  plants. 

Spraying  materials  of  all  kinds  should  be  available  for  exercises 
in  learning  to  mix  them  and  also  for  use  in  spraying  out  of  doors. 

Provide  a  supply  of  the  chemicals  which  may  be  needed  in  any 
of  the  exercises.  Formaldehyde  for  treatment  of  smut  and  sulfate 
of  iron  for  spraying  weeds  are  examples  in  this  group. 

Plant  supplies  for  laboratory  study  should  be  provided  in  suf- 
ficient quantities.  Have  standard  varieties  as  well  as  all  local 
varieties  of  corn,  small  grains,  grasses,  legumes,  and  such  other 
crops  as  are  of  importance  locally.  In  some  schools  it  would  be 
well  to  supply  for  laboratory  study  the  leading  varieties  of  cotton 
in  boll  and  gin  samples  of  lint  and  seed.  Flax  and  hemp  should 
be  available  for  study  in  different  forms  in  the  states  most  directly 
interested  in  the  production  of  these  crops.  In  regions  where 
sugar  beets  or  other  root  crops  are  of  gi  eat  importance  supplies 
should  be  provided  for  laboratory  study. 

Sources  of  Plant  Supplies.7 — Samples  of  grains,  grasses,  legumes, 
and  fiber  crops  may  be  obtained  from  agricultural  laboratory  sup- 
ply houses,  but  usually  it  is  much  better  to  procure  the  local 
varieties  at  least  from  the  school  farm  laboratory  or  trial  grounds. 
Many  of  the  samples  can  be  secured  from  the  homes  of  students 
or  from  other  farms  of  the  neighborhood.  In  some  states  the  state 
experiment  farm  provides  such  materials  for  use  of  high  schools 
and  other  schools  teaching  agriculture.  Considerable  forethought 
should  be  exercised  in  procuring  these  materials  in  advance. 
When  they  are  most  needed  in  the  laboratory  they  may  not  be 
available  in  the  field.  Suggestions  for  preserving  these  materials 
have  already  been  given. 

Pictures  for  Use  in  Teaching.8 — An  abundant  supply  of  pic- 
tures mounted  on  tough  book-cover  paper,  perhaps  gray  in  color, 
should  be  collected  in  every  school.  A  suitable  size  of  mounting 
paper  for  many  of  the  pictures  may  be  such  that  they  can  be 
easily  filed  in  a  common  letter-filing  cabinet.  Here  they  may  be 
arranged  according  to  subject  matter  and  suitable  guide  cards  may 
be  provided. 

Another  size  which  will  be  found  very  useful  for  large  pictures 

7  See  Chapter  XV  and  Appendix. 

8  See  Chapters  XV  and  XVI,  and  Appendix. 


MOVING  PICTURE  FILMS  101 

is  22  by  28  inches.  The  pictures  may  be  mounted  so  that  the 
cards  stand  with  the  longest  dimension  vertical  when  in  use.  Per- 
haps several  pictures  may  be  mounted  on  these  mounting  sheets. 
The  sheets  should  be  made  of  heavy  material,  such  as  stiff  card- 
board. If  eyelets  are  placed  in  the  ends  of  the  cards,  several  cards 
can  be  quickly  hung  together  in  chains  from  picture  moldings  or 
from  other  supports  on  the  wall.  The  cards,  when  not  in  use,  may 
be  kept  flat  in  shallow  drawers  made  for  the  purpose. 

Proper  lettering  should  always  accompany  the  mounted 
pictures.  In  some  cases  a  mere  legend  under  the  pictures  is  suf- 
ficient, but  on  the  large  cards  it  is  well  to  have  some  leading  head- 
lines, as  on  charts,  to  emphasize  certain  points  or  lessons  to  be 
learned  from  the  pictures.  When  this  is  done  the  pictures  are  more 
suitable  for  use  in  extension  work,  such  as  community  meetings, 
farmers'  institutes,  exhibitions. 

Sources  of  Pictures  for  Mounting.9 — Secure  pictures  of  all 
crops,  method  of  production,  cultivation,  harvesting,  storing, 
marketing,  combating  enemies,  etc.  These  may  be  cut  from 
catalogues,  agricultural  journals,  literature  published  by  machine 
companies,  fertilizer  companies,  seed  houses,  and  manufacturers. 
Photographs  may  be  taken  first-hand  by  students  and  instructors 
and  may  be  secured  by  exchange  or  donations  from  other  schools, 
experiment  stations,  demonstration  agents,  special  agricultural 
agents  of  commercial  houses,  banks  and  railroads,  and  others. 
The  wide-awake  teacher  of  agriculture  will  find  abundant  material 
for  illustrative  purposes  to  teach  the  many  lessons  that  are  most 
easily  taught  by  means  of  pictures.  Frequent  use  of  such  material 
will  prove  of  great  value  in  class-room  instruction. 

An  indexing  system  for  pictures  may  be  easily  established 
so  that  when  pictures  are  removed  from  the  files  the}'  may  be 
easily  replaced  by  students  or  by  clerks  who  become  familiar 
with  the  key  system  in  use.  The  Dewey  decimal  system,  or 
some  modification  of  it,  is  perhaps  most  easily  adapted  to 
this  purpose.10 

Moving  Picture  Films. — Visualizing  operations  are  of  great 
benefit  in  teaching  methods  of  various  agricultural  projects.  Films 
are  now  being  made  by  a  number  of  eompanies  for  use  in  agricul- 
tural instruction.  The  preparation  of  fields  for  planting,  cleaning 


9  See  Chapter  XV  and  Appendix. 
10  See  Chapter  XVII  and  Appendix. 


102  HOW  TO  TEACH  AGRONOMY 

grain,  tillage  operations,  selecting  seed  corn,  methods  of  harvesting 
grain  crops,  hay  making,  harvesting  and  marketing  potatoes — 
these  are  all  good  subjects  for  agronomy  films.11 

Local  Subjects  for  Photographs  and  Lantern  Slides.11 — Every 
school  will  find  it  valuable  to  produce  lantern  slides  of  local  sub- 
jects. To  be  able  to  give  the  name  of  the  grower  of  the  certain 
crop  that  is  being  shown,  or  certain  soil  treatments  made  by  a  par- 
ticular farmer  in  the  county,  will  aid  materially  in  the  teaching. 
The  influence  of  one  farmer  over  another  and  the  effect  of  local 
"color"  in  a  set  of  slides  is  important. 

Take  photographs  of  the  effects  of  certain  treatments  of  soil, 
such  as  a  contrast  between  liming  and  no  liming  with  clover;  the 
effect  of  certain  fertilizers  on  crops  grown  by  most  farmers  in  the 
community;  the  effect  of  inoculation  contrasted  with  no  inoculation. 
If  possible,  find  an  opportunity  to  take  photographs  where  cer- 
tain special  treatments  are  of  benefit.  When  certain  farmers 
have  made  a  fine  preparation  of  the  soil  before  sowing  a  crop, 
photograph  that  and  let  other  farmers  see  their  good  example. 
Take  pictures  of  farmers  treating  their  seed  grain  to  prevent  smut; 
the  treatment  of  potatoes  for  scab;  the  fanning  of  grain  to  cull 
out  weed  seeds;  cutting  potatoes;  special  methods  of  saving  seed 
corn  from  rats  and  weevils. 

Making  Local  Films.11 — In  the  field  of  agricultural  instruction 
there  is  need  for  films  illustrating  skilful  operations.  When  op- 
portunity offers,  agricultural  colleges,  high  schools  with  depart- 
ments of  agriculture,  and  others  should  equip  themselves,  either 
temporarily  or  otherwise,  with  film-taking  machines.  Produce  films 
showing  processes  in  preparing  soils  for  crops;  adjusting  planting 
machines;  cleaning  grain;  cultivators ;  planting  potatoes  and  corn; 
drilling  grain;  hand  sowing;  use  of  hand  seeders;  spreading  fertil- 
izers; cutting  and  raking  hay;  making  shocks;  use  of  hay  caps,  with 
methods  of  fastening  them  on;  methods  of  testing  for  dryness  of  hay; 
the  waste  of  leaves;  use  of  hay  forks  and  hay  carriers;  mowing  away 
hay;  steps  in  harvesting  grain,  including  the  skill  in  operation  of 
binder;  operation  of  threshing  machine  with  special  attention  to 
prevention  of  losses  of  grain,  and  thorough  threshing. 

When  such  films  are  taken  they  can  easily  be  sold  to  manufac- 
turers of  positive  films  for  at  least  enough  to  cover  the  cost  of 
taking  and  making  your  own  set  of  positives. 

11  See  Chapter  XVI  and  Appendix. 


FIELD-CROP  WORK  103 

Field  Crop  Machinery.12 — In  teaching  the  work  in  field  crops 
have  available  for  illustration  and  for  use  such  small  machines 
as  seeders,  hay  forks,  pumps,  eveners,  and  hay  cutters.  Have 
important  parts  of  machines,  as  planter  boxes,  sections  of  disk 
harrows  and  plows,  rolling  colters  and  other  colters  for  plow  beams, 
and  bundle-tying  devices  from  binders.  Have  models  of  silos, 
eveners,  and  other  hitching  devices. 

If  possible,  large  entire  machines  may  be  kept  in  suitable  places 
at  the  school.  Classes  may  visit  dealers  or  machines  may  be  brought 
from  dealers  to  the  school.  On  neighboring  farms  study  the  oper- 
ation of  such  machines  as  manure  spreaders,  plows,  tractors,  silage 
cutters,  binders,  cultivators,  and  diggers. 

Field-crop  work  in  rural  schools  should  be  based  largely  upon 
the  practices  in  the  community.  These  practices  may  be  those  of 
the  students  and  of  their  parents  and  their  neighbors.  Try  to  link 
the  instruction  closely  to  the  operations  themselves.  Crops  that  are 
raised  and  the  neighborhood  practices  with  certain  crops  should  be 
the  basis  for  the  work  in  rural  schools.  Suit  the  study  to  the  season. 
For  those  times  of  year  when  seed  corn  should  be  selected  in  the 
fields  let  the  lessons  in  school  be  upon  that  kind  of  work.  In  the 
winter  when  seed  testing,  grinding  of  feeds,  marketing  of  products, 
selection  of  fertilizers,  and  similar  operations  are  in  progress,  the 
school  should  take  these  for  its  subject  matter. 

In  the  rural  school  it  is  important  that  the  student  learn  a  few 
things  well.  Those  field  crops  which  are  grown  by  all  or  nearly  all 
the  farmers  of  the  region  should  be  studied  first  and  the  best 
methods  learned.  Bad  processes  in  the  production  of  these  crops 
should  be  condemned  and  better  methods  put  in  their  places.  The 
diseases  and  insects  affecting  these  crops  and  methods  of  control- 
ling them  should  be  studied  thoroughly.  Do  not  expect  students 
in  rural  schools  to  learn  all  there  is  to  be  known  regarding  all  crops. 
Leave  this  to  the  high-school  students  or  college  students.  It  is 
better  to  know  what  to  do  and  how  to  do  it  with  reference  to  a 
few  leading  crops  than  to  study  the  history,  development  and  other 
nonvocational  features  regarding  the  crops. 

Field-Crop  Work  for  Pupils  in  Town  Grades. — There  are  ele- 
mentary lessons  with  farm  crops  which  pupils  in  grades  below  high 
school  may  study  with  profit.  Many  studies  relating  to  corn,  wheat, 
and  other  common  crops  may  be  made  from  bulletins,  from  speci- 
mens themselves,  from  geographies,  and  from  laboratory  exercises 

12  See  Chapter  XV. 


104  HOW  TO  TEACH  AGRONOMY 

and  field  trips.  After  students  have  performed  laboratory  exercises 
in  testing  seeds,  examining  for  impurities,  or  treating  grain  for 
smut,  and  potatoes  for  scab,  they  should  base  other  lessons  in  their 
school  work  upon  these  exercises.  If  they  take  trips  to  nearby 
places  to  study  methods  of  growing,  handling,  or  selling  certain 
crops,  they  should  write  up  these  trips,  base  arithmetic  work  upon 
the  problems  involved,  form  groups  of  spelling  words,  and  have 
lessons  in  drawing  and  reading  on  such  topics. 

Short  Courses  with  Field  Crops. — The  most  important  money 
crops  of  the  region  should  form  the  basis  for  study  in  short  courses, 
whether  these  courses  be  for  a  week  or  two  or  for  a  number  of  weeks. 
If  it  has  been  shown  by  some  trials  that  certain  new  crops  would  be 
profitable  in  the  region,  these  new  crops  may  be  considered  in  short 
courses.  Let  the  instructors  be  chosen  from  among  those  who  have 
had  the  best  experience  with  such  crops.  They  should  teach  largely 
from  practical  experience,  and  should  base  the  lessons  on  specimens, 
materials,  exercises,  field  trips,  and  practical  work.  Teach  ex- 
periences rather  than  merely  principles.  Have  a  few  night  meetings 
and  start  debates,  selecting  topics  from  some  of  the  lists  in  this 
book  (see  index).  (See  also  suggestions  for  short-course  work  in 
Chapters  VI  to  XII.) 

Things  to  Discover  in  Field-Crop  Work. — There  are  a  number 
of  things  which  would  benefit  each  student  by  discovering  for 
himself  instead  of  being  told  directly.  He  may  often  learn  a  lesson 
better  by  finding  out  the  answer  from  nature.  A  number  of  things 
which  the  pupil  should  discover  are  here  suggested:  (1)  Does  the 
soil  on  my  farm  need  to  be  inoculated  for  certain  new  legumes? 

(2)  Should  my  farm  be  limed  for  the  growing  of  clover  or  alfalfa? 

(3)  Should  I  sow  alfalfa  in  August  or  in  spring?    (4)  Would  there  be 
any  objection  to  growing  corn  on  a  certain  field  two  years  in  suc- 
cession?   (5)  Would  it  be  better  to  plan  a  short  rotation  or  a  long 
rotation  for  my  farm?    (6)  What  plants  should  I  grow  in  a  mixture 
for  a  pasture  on  my  farm?    (7)  On  my  light  soils  what  crops  would 
make  the  best  rotation  for  pig  pastures? 

Field-Crop  Discussions.13 — If  students  live  on  farms,  they 
should  be  encouraged  to  discuss  at  home  topics  which  have  been 
suggested  at  school.  Field  crops  are  always  of  importance  on 
farms.  These  will  be  subjects  under  discussion  and  new  phases  re- 
garding them  will  not  be  difficult  to  introduce.  Discuss  plans  for 
changing  the  rotation  system  on  the  farm.  Discuss  troubles  with 

13  See  topic  for  debate,  Chapter  XI. 


REFERENCE  BOOKS  ON  FIELD  CROPS  105 

certain  crops  of  the  preceding  season  arid  make  plans  if  possible 
to  avoid  these  troubles.  Discuss  the  advisability  of  starting  some 
of  the  new  crops  which  have  been  suggested  at  school. 

Teachers  of  agriculture  may  suggest  such  topics  as  these  and  ask 
for  reports  by  pupils  from  parents  and  neighbors  as  to  the  trend 
of  the  discussions.  Many  topics  may  be  suggested  by  going  over 
the  answers  to  surveys  made  previously. 

Things  to  Observe  in  Field-Crop  Work. — Observations  on  plants 
and  crops  add  much  to  the  training  of  young  people.  They  should 
be  taught  to  make  many  observations  regarding  the  field  crops  on 
their  farms.  A  few  points  to  observe  are  mentioned  here: 

1.  Note  the  kind  of  weather  when  pollen  of  corn  is  scattering  and  see  that 
the  silks  of  the  corn  are  dry  or  in  condition  to  receive  pollen. 

2.  Observe  the  time  required  for  the  germination  of  any  field  crop  after 
date  of  planting.     Make  memoranda  of  the  moisture  conditions  of  the  soil 
at  the  time. 

3.  Note- how  long  after  blossoming  the  small  grain  requires  for  maturity 
of  the  crop.     This  will  give   a  guide  to  the  harvest  date  after  blossoming 
is  observed. 

4.  Observe  how  long  a  field  of  corn  planted  for  roasting  ears  remains  in 
marketable  condition. 

5.  How  soon  after  blossoming  time  of  Irish  potatoes  may  the  early  crop 
be  harvested. 

6.  Observe  the  differences  in  young  growth  of  small  grains  and  learn  to 
know  how  to  tell  them  apart  in  that  stage. 

7.  Learn  to  detect  by  close  observation  the  first  signs  in  newly  planted  fields 
of  damage  from  such  enemies  as  cutworms,  gophers,  blackbirds  and  crows. 

Things  to  do  in  Field-Crop  Work. — Doing  things  well  should 
be  the  aim  of  all  students.  Instructors  should  teach  students  to  do 
the  work  with  field  crops  as  carefully  and  accurately  as  they  can. 
Teach  them  in  drilling  grain  to  see  that  the  drill  is  working  well  and 
that  no  section  fails  to  do  its  work.  Teach  them  to  skip  no  place 
between  trips  of  the  drill.  Teach  them  in  seeding  fields  with  clover, 
alfalfa,  or  other  small  seeds  to  sow  half  east-and-west  and  half 
north-and-south,  i.e.,  to  cross  the  field  with  part  of  the  seeding 
to  secure  a  more  even  distribution  of  seed.  Teach  them  to  plow 
fields  chiefly  by  back-furrowing  rather  than  by  leaving  a  dead 
furrow  in  the  middle.  Teach  them  how  to  make  moldboards  of 
plows  scour  well.  Teach  them  how  to  judge  the  ripeness  of  hay 
crops  and  grain  crops.  Teach  them  how  to  cure  hay  well.  Teach 
them  how  to  handle  special  hay  crops  without  loss  of  many  leaves. 

Reference  Books  on  Field  Crops.14 — Be  sure  to  have  on  the 
reference  shelves  all  of  the  available  books  relating  to  field  crops 

14  See  Chapter  XVII  and  Appendix. 


106  HOW  TO  TEACH  AGRONOMY 

in  general  and  also  hooks  relating  to  special  crops.  The  latter  will 
be  of  great  value  to  students  in  making  studies  for  their  home 
project  work.  There  are  special  books  on  small  grains,  others  on 
grasses,  others  on  legumes,  others  on  alfalfa,  others  on  potatoes. 
The  first  volume  of  Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture  will  be  of 
much  use.  See  if  there  are  any  special  crop  books  especially  val- 
uable to  your  own  state. 

Field-Crop  Bulletins.15 — Numerous  farmers'  bulletins  relating 
directly  or  indirectly  to  field  crops  may  be  obtained  free  of  cost. 
Obtain  also  many  of  the  division  publications  from  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Obtain  the  special  bulletins 
from  state  agricultural  boards  of  the  different  states  and  also 
the  many  bulletins  relating  to  field  crops  from  the  different  experi- 
ment stations.  First,  write  to  all  of  those  in  your  section  of  the 
country.  After  classifying  these,  obtain  others  from  leading  stations 
in  other  states.  Remember  that  the  more  special  bulletins  you  can 
obtain  the  better  your  students  can  make  their  project  studies. 

Field-Crop  Journals.10 — All  general  farm  papers  are  devoted  as 
much  to  field  crops  as  to  any  other  department  of  agriculture. 
First,  obtain  sample  copies  of  those  which  you  think  would  meet 
the  needs  of  the  students  in  your  region.  After  examining  these 
sample  copies,  subscribe  for  those  which  you  find  best  suited  to 
the  needs  in  your  locality. 

Send  for  catalogues  of  all  seed  houses  that  are  well  located  for 
your  section  of  the  country.  Some  of  these  frequently  issue  price 
lists  of  field  seeds.  Have  the  name  of  the  school  placed  on  mail- 
ing lists  to  receive  such  prices  regularly.  They  will  be  handy  for 
use  in  many  problems  which  arise  in  project  studies  and  other  work 
in  vocational  agriculture. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Make  an  outline  plan  for  a  field  trip  in  the  study  of  one  or  more  of  the 
lending  crops  in  your  state. 

2.  Revise  the  list  of  unit  subjects  for  survey,  given  in  this  chapter,  so 
that  it  will  be  more  suitable  for  your  state. 

3.  Make  an  outline  for  an  agronomy  survey  on  one  of  the  leading  crops 
of  your  state  modeled  after  the  potato  survey  given  in  this  chapter. 

4.  Make  a  full  sized  chart  useful  in  fanners'  meetings,  or  in  the  class-room, 
using  your  best  ingenuity  for  originality. 

5.  Conduct  one  or  more  contests  with  students  in  teaching  skill  in  plowing, 
disking,  drilling,  selecting  seed  corn,  etc. 

(').  Conduct  judging  contests  with  students. 


15  See  Chapter  XVII  and  Apjx'ndix. 


QUESTIONS  107 

7.  Obtain  catalogues  of  agronomy  materials  and  make  up  a  list  of  equip- 
ment, with  cost  for  each  item. 

8.  Draw  a  plan  of  class-room  with  laboratory  tables  and  equipment  in 
the  same  room. 

9.  Collect  a  number  of  pictures  useful  in  teaching  field  crops.     Classify 
these  pictures  and  mount  them,  using  the  suggestions  given. 

10.  Make  a  list  of  five  suitable  topics  for  debates  concerning  field  crops. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  most  important  crons  in  your  state,  which  should  be 

included  in  teaching  the  subject  of  field  crops  to  high-school  students. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  rather  new  crops  which  should  Iw  considered  at  least  in 

some  sections  of  the  state.     What  would  be  the  advantage  of  having 
students  understand  the  details  of  raising  these  new  crops? 

3.  Give  a  reason  why  you  would  prefer  to  teach  the  subject  of  field  crops 

before  you  teach  animal  husbandry  to  high-school  students. 

4.  Tell  how  to  apply  the  topical  method  to  an  assignment  and  recitation  on 

some  particular  crop. 

5.  How  would  you  relate  the  topics  in  the  class  recitation  to  the  project  work 

of  the  students? 

G.  Suggest  a  list  of  illustrative  material  for  use  in  the  subject  of  small  grains; 
in  the  study  of  corn;  in  the  study  of  cotton,  or  tobacco. 

7.  Suggest  a  number  of  class-room  demonstrations  to  aid  in  the  study  of 

sweet  potatoes;  of  Irish  potatoes. 

8.  Suggest  laboratory  exercises  suitable  to  accompany  the  study  of  these 

two  crops. 

9.  Give  a  list  of  outdoor  exercises  in  agronomy,  increasing,  if  possible,  the 

list  given  in  this  chapter. 

10.  Why  should  a  field  trip  be  planned  well  before  it  is  undertaken? 

11.  Why  should  the  students  be  required  to  follow  such  a  plan? 

12.  Why  should  the  student  make  notes  of  the  answers  to  questions  at  the 

farm  where  any  crop  is  being  studied? 

13.  Make  a  list  of  twenty-five  kinds  of  home  projects  for  profit  in  the  field 

of  agronomy,  suitable  for  students  to  pursue. 

14.  Classify  twenty-five  projects  somewhat  as  they  are  classified  in  this  chapter. 

15.  Mention  the  chief  topics  that  should  be  included  in  a  small-unit  agronomy 

survey. 

16.  How  can  you  make  use  of  the  information  gained  after  survey  cards  are 

filled?     How  would  you  have  this  information  summarized? 

17.  Suggest  subjects  for  several  new  agronomy  charts. 

18.  Mention  a  number  of  topics  in  agronomy  in  which  students  would  be  re- 

quired to  gain  skill. 

19.  Give  the  points  to  be  considered  in  judging  a  plowing  contest. 

20.  How  could  you  judge  the  work  of  a  student  in  disking?    In  drilling? 

21.  What  points  should  be  included  in  a  score  card  used  to  judge  a  contest 

in  field  selection  of  corn? 

22.  Why  should  cotton  seed  be  selected  in  the  field? 

23.  Give  points  to  be  observed  in  field  selection  of  seed  wheat. 

24.  What  skill  can  be  exercised  in  harvesting  small  grains? 

25.  Mention  a  number  of  agronomy  topics  in  which  skill  in  judging  may  lx>  used. 

26.  Give  a  list  of  agronomy  materials  which  may  be  stored  for  class  use  and 

tell  how  to  store  them. 

27.  Tell  how  to  make  a  mouse-proof  closet. 

28.  Mention  suitable  containers  for  specimens;  for  samples  of  grains  and  seeds. 

29.  Where  would  you  get  illustrations  for  use  in  teaching  agronomy? 


108  HOW  TO  TEACH  AGRONOMY 

30.  Give  suggestions  regarding  methods  of  allowing  illustrative  samples. 

31.  Mention  a  number  of  consumable  supplies  which  you  would  need  in  teach- 

ing agronomy  by  laboratory  methods. 

32.  Mention  a  number  of  sources  of  pictures  useful  in  teaching  agronomy. 

33.  How  would  you  arrange  and  mount  such  pictures? 

34.  Mention  suitable  subjects  for  moving  picture  films  in  agronomy. 

35.  What  local  scenes  would  be  suitable  for  photographs  and  lantern  slides? 

36.  What  machines  would  you  want  for  teaching  a  class  the  implements  used 

in  field  work? 

37.  Suggest  suitable  field-crop  work  for  pupils  in  town  grades. 

38.  Give  a  list  of  things  to  discover  in  studying  agronomy. 

39.  How  would  you  start  discussions  among  students  and  parents  in  studying 

field  crops? 

40.  Give  a  list  of  things  to  observe  in  field-crop  work. 

41.  Mention  ten  suitable  field-crop  books  to  place  on  the  reference  shelves. 


CHAPTER  VI 
HOW  TO  TEACH  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

"The  specific  aim  of  the  work  in  Animal  Husbandry  is  to  enable  young 
people  to  obtain  such  a  knowledge  of  the  characteristics,  breeding,  feeding, 
care  and  management,  and  marketing  of  the  domestic  animals  commonly 
raised  for  profit  in  that  region  as  will  prepare  them  for  success  in  livestock 
farming." — Report  of  Committee  on  Agriculture  of  the  N.  E.  A.  Commission 
on  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education. 

IT  is  the  aim  of  this  chapter  to  call  attention  to  such  special 
methods  as  will  enable  instructors  to  most  successfully  lead  their 
students  to  a  lucid  understanding  of  the  subject  of  animal  hus- 
bandry. There  are  many  such  methods  used  by  certain  schools 
that  are  not  known  by  others.  The  suggestions  here  given  may 
lead  instructors  who  are  seeking  the  best  methods  of  teaching 
animal  husbandry  to  devise  and  adapt  all  of  these  that  will  suit 
their  own  local  conditions. 

Special  Methods  in  Animal  Husbandry. — There  is  so  much  val- 
uable material  to  aid  in  teaching  animal  husbandry  that  we  ought 
to  lay  down  this  principle  at  the  very  outset :  "Always  have  some 
illustrative  material  available  for  every  lesson."  There  may  be  a 
few  occasions  for  making  exceptions  to  this  rule,  but  the  excep- 
tions should  be  as  few  as  possible.  Use  animals  that  are  found  in 
the  neighborhood  to  illustrate  the  lessons  being  taught  (Fig.  31). 
Never  conclude  that  animals  are  to  be  used  for  judging  purposes 
only.  They  may  be  used  in  showing  the  location  of  parts,  location 
of  diseases,  points  of  unsoundness,  studies  in  animal  mechanics, 
heredity  in  breeding,  gaits  or  action,  effects  of  feeds,  effects  of 
special  treatment  or  management,  treatment  of  diseases,  tests  for 
diseases,  prevention  of  diseases,  and  in  other  ways. 

Content  of  Animal  Husbandry. x— In  high  schools  the  subject  of 
animal  husbandry  usually  includes  a  study  of  all  the  types  of  farm 
animals,  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  hogs,  and  poultry.  Both  the  dairy 
and  beef  types  (Fig.  32)  of  cattle  are  usually  included.  If  special 
study  is  given  later  in  the  course  to  dairying  or  to  special 
poultry  husbandry,  these  should  be  in  addition  to  the  general 
introductory  course.  If  dairying  and  poultry  husbandry  are  to 
be  repeated  later,  the  small  proportion  of  attention  in  the  general 

1  See  N.  E.  A.  Commission  on  Revision,  Agriculture  Report,  U.  S.  Bu. 
of  Ed. 

109 


no 


HOW  TO  TEACH  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


animal  husbandry  course  will  not  be  in  vain.  Good  outlines  of 
subject  matter  in  animal  husbandry  may  be  found  in  the  textbooks. 
As  several  of  these  are  usually  found  in  the  libraries  of  most  schools, 
it  is  needless  to  repeat  their  tables  of  contents  here. 

The  way  in  which  the  topics  are  to  be  considered  should  be  de- 
cided by  the  instructor  and  students  after  making  some  local  sur- 
veys and  carefully  studying  local  conditions.  It  should  never  be 
concluded  that  the  consideration  of  topics  should  be  in  the  order 
given  in  any  particular  textbook.  No  author  of  a  textbook  can  ar- 
range the  subject  matter  to  suit  the  local  conditions  in  all  parts  of 


*'io.  31. — Group  of  students  in  animal  husbandry  beini*  taueht  to  judge  farm  horses.     (H.  N. 
Loomis,  Northampton,  Mass.) 

the  country.  The  instructor  should  have  such  intimate  knowledge 
of  the  local  conditions  as  to  be  able  to  decide  for  himself  the  topics 
to  be  considered  first. 

Emphasis  should  be  placed  on  those  phases  of  animal  husbandry 
which  are  of  most  vital  importance  to  the  region.  If  horse  hus- 
bandry is  of  great  importance  locally,  let  that  be  considered  early 
in  the  course  and  let  special  emphasis  be  given  to  it.  In  some  re- 
gions mule  production  might  be  likewise  important.  Beef  cattle 
should  come  up  for  most  important  consideration  in  some  sections. 
In  still  other  places  swine  husbandry  is  the  most  important.  The 
sheep  industry  is  prominent  in  some  regions  and  not  in  others. 
Let  the  instructor  and  the  class  decide  together  what  special  phases 
of  animal  husbandry  need  consideration  most.  In  some  cases  there 


EQUIPMENT  FOR  TEACHING  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY     111 

is  an  advisory  committee,  or  member,  in  the  community  who  also 
should  be  consulted  on  this  point.  When  season  makes  any  im- 
portant difference,  remember  to  make  the  topic  timely. 

Equipment  for  Teaching  Animal  Husbandry.     Schools  vary 


Flo.  32. — Judging  and  scoring  beef  cattle.  Students  should  become  familiar  with  all  the 
breeds  of  the  region.  Study  utility  types  and  show  types.  (W.  V.  Lon^ley,  Minn.,  and  E.  t). 

Bolender,  Ohio.) 

widely  in  their  equipment  for  teaching;  animal  husbandry.  When 
the  school  owns  only  a  few  animals  and  these  are  restricted  to 
only  a  few  types,  material  for  instruction  must  be  found  in  the 
region.  Do  not  omit  teaching  concretely  for  lack  of  sufficient 
illustrative  equipment. 


112  HOW  TO  TEACH  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

In  the  best-equipped  schools  the  different  types  of  horses  are 
kept  for  the  sake  of  teaching  students  the  nature  of  all  of  these 
types.  These  schools  are  likewise  equipped  with  different  breeds 
of  beef  and  dairy  cattle,  the  leading  breeds  of  hogs,  several  breeds  of 
sheep,  and  a  number  of  varieties  of  poultry.  Buildings  of  several 
types  for  the  housing  of  each  of  these  kinds  of  animals  are  some- 
times found  (see  page  121). 

Schools  having  such  superior  equipment  as  this  have  greater 
responsibility  than  others  because  of  the  large  amount  of  money 
invested.  From  such  schools  more  is  usually  expected  in  the  way 
of  practical  instruction.  On  the  other  hand,  instructors  in  schools 
which  have  little  or  almost  none  of  the  equipment  just  mentioned 
for  the  teaching  of  animal  husbandry  should  feel  the  need  of  obtain- 
ing the  use  of  such  equipment  in  the  region.  The  students  may  be 
taken  to  the  animals  or  the  animals  may  be  brought  to  the  school. 
They  should  never  allow  the  absence  of  such  equipment  to  stand 
in  the  way  of  practical  instruction.  Make  contrasts  with  the  good 
and  the  bad  as  they  are  found  in  the  region. 

The  cost  of  maintenance  of  expensive  animals  owned  by  the 
school  is  an  important  consideration.  Many  high  schools  have 
decided  not  to  purchase  expensive  pure-bred  animals  because  of 
the  cost  of  maintenance.  Unless  these  are  to  be  kept  in  large 
enough  numbers  to  be  good  sources  of  income  it  is  perhaps  bad 
management  to  have  them  kept  at  great  financial  outlay  by 
the  school. 

In  some  institutions  it  is  advisable  for  the  school  to  own  pure- 
bred sires  for  improvement  of  livestock  purposes  in  the  commu- 
nity. The  school  may  be  the  center  of  a  community  breeding  circle 
with  l)eef  cattle  and  other  types  of  livestock.  In  all  such  cases 
the  maintenance  of  animals  should  be  provided  by  the  rules  of 
the  breeding  association.  The  extra  instruction  which  the  students 
may  get  because  of  the  presence  of  these  animals  will  be  a  clear 
gain  to  the  school. 

Class  Work  in  Animal  Husbandry. — The  suggestion  has  already 
l)een  made  that  the  class  work  in  animal  husbandry  should  be  prac- 
tical and  concrete  by  being  well  illustrated  with  the  use  of  animals. 
In  making  lesson  assignments  individual  students  should  be  given 
such  topics  as  will  cause  them  to  make  use  of  animals  in  presenting 
the  topics  to  the  class.  Of  course  they  should  be  required  to  do 
reading  from  textbooks,  reference  books  and  bulletins  in  preparing 
their  topics.  These  should  be  closely  associated  with  the  projects 


CLASS  WORK  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


113 


which  some  members  of  the  class  are  pursuing.  A  wide  range  of 
topics  closely  related  to  the  same  general  phase  of  the  subject 
may  be  assigned  to  different  members  of  the  class.  Thus  studies 
and  reports  from  different  angles  of  vision  will  be  developed.  Re- 
member that  students  will  always  work  better,  show  greater  interest, 
and  report  with  greater  enthusiasm  if  they  have  been  making 
researches  which  are  not  assigned  to  other  members  of  the  class. 


Fio.   33. — In  home  project  work  the  student,  father,  and  instructor  meet  on  the  farm  to 

study  the  details  of  che  enterprise.    Animals  should  be  frequently  weighed  and  records  kept. 

(T.  G.  Brown,  Wis.,  and  S.  R.  S.,  U.  S.  D.  A.) 

The  attitude  of  the  instructor  in  this  topic  method  of  recitation 
is  that  of  a  masterful  director.  He  has  to  exhibit  his  skill  in  wise 
lesson  assignments.  He  will  show  his  knowledge  of  the  literature  of 
the  subject  by  concrete  references.  He  must  discriminate  closely 
between  good  and  poor  reports  on  the  various  topics  by  students. 
If,  for  example,  a  student  gets  two  breeds  of  animals  confused,  or  if 
he  gets  two  points  of  animals  mixed,  or  two  blemishes  or  diseases 
confounded,  he  should  be  promptly  corrected  and  other  students 
should  be  called  upon  to  straighten  out  the  difficulty. 

Base  the  class  work  on  the  home  project  work  of  students 
enough  to  keep  the  interest  of  the  whole  class  centered  on  these 
projects  (Figs.  33  and  34). 
8 


114 


HOW  TO  TEACH  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


Review  Work.2 — All  class  work  should  bo  frequently  reviewed. 
Perhaps  a  few  minutes  at  the  beginning  of  each  recitation  should 


^^^*^i^^^^^^^j^fi^^^^*r^^f3^^^m^f^^f^^^^^ma^a^mm^m^mm^^^m*mmm^^m^mm^m^^Hf^n^^^^^^^^^^i^^^^^^^^^ 

FIG.   34. — These  students  arc  learning  to  prepare  baby  beef  for  market.     The  calves  in  the 

lower  view  were  fed  for  110  days  as  a  group  project  by  the  animal  husbandry  class  of  an 

Iowa  high  school  and  gained  three  pounds  and  one  pound  per  day,  respectively.     (Upper, 

S.  R.  S.,  U.  S.  D.  A.    Lower,  R.  M.  Vifquain.) 

be  used  to  review  the  main  points  of  the  preceding  lesson.    This 
will  aid  in  bringing  to  the  minds  of  the  students  the  points  which 

2  See  Chapter  IV. 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  LABORATORY  WORK 


115 


the  instructor  considers  most  important.  It  will  also  fix  in  the 
minds  of  all  those?  points  which  were  studied  and  reported  by  in- 
dividuals only.  The  use  of  review  questions  written  on  the  black- 
board or  given  to  the  class  on  mimeographed  sheets  from  time  to 
time  will  aid  materially  in  all  of  these  points. 

Animal  Husbandry  Laboratory  Work. — Those  schools  which 
have  some  equipment  in  animal  husbandry  will  find  it  possible  to 


FIG.  35. — These  groups  of  students  from  high  schools  have  gone  to  neighborhood 

farms  to  study  horses  of  superior  quality.     The  horse  owners  seem  as  interested 

as  are  the  boys.     (Allen  Aldrich  and  W.  P.  Dyer.) 

conduct  considerable  laboratory  work  at  the  school.  All  the  work 
in  dairying  which  is  familiar  to  the  instructor  may  be  considered 
as  animal  husbandry  laboratory  work  (Chapter  VII).  The  feeding 
and  care  of  animals  in  barns,  in  feed  lots,  in  hospital  stalls,  are 
all  valuable  methods  of  instruction. 

Judging  animals  is  a  common  form  of  laboratory  practice 
(Figs.  31  and  35).  Examining  animals  for  unsoundness  (Fig.  45). 
detecting  the  age  of  animals,  comparing  them  in  dispositions, 


116 


HOW  TO  TEACH  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


temperaments,  gaits,  conformation,  and  suitability  for  certain  pur- 
poses, are  all  good  practices  for  students. 

Many  feeding  experiments  are  outlined  in  two  manuals  now  on 
the  market.3 

Important  exercises  in  feeding  should  include  the  mixing  of  con- 
centrates for  dairy  cows,  for  beef  cattle,  for  poultry,  for  hogs,  or 


Fio.  36. 


FIG.  37. 


FIG.  38. 


FIG.  39. 


FIGS.  36-30. — Four  methods  of  feeding  pigs  in  boys'  project  work.    Fig.  36,  dry  lot  with  corn 

and  slop.     Fig.  37,  home-made  feed  hoppers  and  rape  pasture  in  Tennessee.     Fig.  38,  green 

feed  supplied  in  small  pen  by  soiling  method,   Wisconsin.     Fig.   39,  grain  to  supplement 

pasture.     (Last  three  from  S.  R.  S.,  U.  S.  D.  A.) 

other  animals,  using  the  feeds  which  are  common  in  the  region 
or  which  are  easily  available.  Dry  mashes  and  scratch  feeds  for 
poultry  should  be  included  (Chapter  VIII).  Conduct  experiments 
in  judging  hays  of  the  same  plants  by  score  cards  and  by  compari- 
son. Visit  hay  mows  and  stacks  and  calculate  the  amounts  of  hay 
in  them.  Make  comparative  studies  of  straw  in  stacks  and  in  bales. 
Make  trips  to  silos  and  study  the  silage  with  reference  to  fineness, 

3  WolPs  "Fred  Manual  and  Notebook"  and  Savage's  "  Feeds  and  Feed- 
ing Manual." 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  LABORATORY  WORK 


117 


palatability  for  animals,  keeping  qualities,  moisture,  and  feeding 
value.  Make  calculations  of  tiie  amount  of  silage  in  silos.  Visit  feed 
markets  and  study  the  different  types  of  feeds,  market  prices,  guar- 
anteed com|K>sition  of  each,  and  determine  which  are  most  econom- 
ical for  use  with  different  types  of  livestock.  Make  lal>oratory 
tests  for  adulteration  of  concentrates,  as  in  linseed  meal,  cottonseed 
meal,  molasses  feeds,  poultry  and  dairy  mixtures.  Examine  feeds 
which  are  likely  to  contain  large  amounts  of  indigestible  materials, 
such  as  corn-and-cob  meal,  buckwheat  bran,  and  rice  bran.  De- 
termine the  percentage  of  hulls  in  whole  oats  and  in  ground 
oats.  Visit  mills  and  factories  where  by-products  are  prepared  for 


Fio.  40. — Hog  cholera  vaccination  demonstration  on  high  school  campus,  at  Sebastopol, 
Calif.  The  grammar  school  boys  came  to  witness  the  demonstration.  (H.  I.  Schnabel.) 

feeding  purposes.  Study  the  various  by-products  while  they  are 
being  prepared  for  the  market.  These  should  include  if  possible 
the  various  wheat,  oat,  and  barley  products,  peanut  products,  lin- 
seed meal,  cottonseed  meal,  soybean  and  velvet  bean  meal,  alfalfa 
meal,  cocoanut  meal,  or  any  others  available  in  the  region.  It  may 
be  possible  to  visit  abattoirs  or  packing  plants,  and  learn  the 
methods  of  preparing  blood  meal,  tankage,  meat  scraps,  and  other 
products.  In  the  study  of  the  effects  and  uses  of  feeds  trips  should 
be  made  to  particular  farms  selected  for  special  purposes,  such  as : 
the  feeds  of  certain  rations  in  calf  raising;  unusual  rations  being  fed 
to  dairy  cows;  the  feeding  of  cows  for  official  tests;  stations  and  sub- 
stations where  special  feeding  experiments  are  being  conducted: 


118 


HOW  TO  TKACH  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


the  use  of  soiling  crops  for  dairy  cows;  the  study  of  special  pastures, 
a*  rape,  alfalfa;  the  use  of  special  rations  in  fattening  hogs,  fatten- 
ing steers,  feeding  market  pigs,  show  animals,  and  breeding  animals. 
Laboratory  Work  with  Horses  and  Mules. — The  study  of 
horses  and  mules  will  be  made  more  interesting  and  more  valuable 
by  a  number  of  exercises  and  trips  (Fig.  35).  If  mule  growing  is 
important  in  the  region,  visit  the  barns  where  jacks  are  kept  and 
study  the  methods  used  in  their  care  and  management,  prices  for 
service,  number  of  animals  bred  in  a  season,  the  percentage  of  live 


Fin.   41. — Roys  docking  a  lamb  by  the  hot-iron  method.     (E.  E.  Knudson, 
Wyoming.) 

mule  colts,  and  the  profits,  if  any,  derived  from  the  keeping  of 
jacks.  Studies  in  heredity  may  be  made1  by  comparing  the  types  of 
various  jacks  and  mares  with  their  offspring. 

In  regions  where  valuable  stallions  are  kept,  make  trips  to  their 
stables  and  make  similar  studies. 

Visit  farms  where  large  numbers  of  work  horses  or  mules  are 
kept  and  study  methods  of  handling  them,  what  rules  for  teamsters 
an1  posted  in  barns  or  otherwise1  enforced  by  managers.  What  care 
is  exercised  with  woik  animals  when  returned  from  work,  and  what 
care  is  given  to  the  harness?  What  types  of  animals  are  used  on 


EXEKCISES  IN  SWINE  MANAGEMENT  111) 

such  large  farms,  light  or  heavy?  If  different  farms  vary  in  regard 
to  these  points,  find  the  reasons  for  these  differences.  Visit  the 
barns  of  veterinarians  and  study  animals  under  treatment  for 
various  troubles,  as  fractures  of  Ixmes,  dental  troubles,  or  any  com- 
mon or  uncommon  ailment.  Become  familiar  with  the  symptoms  of 
various  troubles  and  the  treatment  being  administered.  If  jx>ssible, 
have  the  veterinarian  show  his  surgical  instruments  and  explain  or 
demonstrate  their  uses. 

Another  good  exercise  with  animals  of  any  kind  Is  to  obtain 
specimens  of  their  parts  from  veterinarians,  from  farmers,  or  other 
owners.  Hoofs  and  other  parts  of  horses  are  obtainable  from  dead 
animals.  Different  types  of  hoofs  should  be  collected  for  making 
comparative  studies.  Skulls  showing  different  formations  of  teeth 


FIG.  42. — Ohio  students  of  sheep  mdnanement.     Practice  in  trimminK  feet 
on  a  farm  near  the  school.     (K.  O.  Bolender.) 

or  other  characteristics  are  valuable.  Flesh  may  be  removed  from 
bones  by  boiling  in  dilute  caustic  potash  or  lye. 

Post-Mortem  Studies. — When  word  is  received  of  the  death  of 
an  animal  of  any  kind,  the  class  should,  if  possible,  visit  the  place 
and  make  a  post-mortem  examination  to  determine  the  cause  of 
death.  Directions  for  such  work  may  be  found  in  books  relating 
to  the  diseases  of  farm  animals,  such  as  Craig's,  Maj-o's,  and  others. 

Exercises  in  Swine  Management. — Students  should  become 
familiar  with  the  young  and  old,  male  and  female  animals  of  all  the 
breeds  of  swine  available.  Visit  them  wherever  they  are  kept  and 
study  their  comparative  sizes,  rapidity  of  growth,  size  of  litters, 
vigor,  their  prominent  markings  and  other  characteristics.  Differ- 
ent methods  of  housing  should  be  compared  and  criticized.  Feeding 
systems  and  pastures  should  be  studied  carefully  (Figs.  3G-39). 


120  HOW  TO  TEACH  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

Good  exercises  for  students  may  be  the  making  of  hog  cots, 
feeding  troughs,  feeding  hoppers,  oiling  devices,  concrete  wal- 
lows, breeding  floors,  and  shelters  from  intense  sun  and  winter 
blasts.  Also  they  should  make  breeding  racks,  pig  creeps,  and 
watering  devices. 

Exercises  in  the  treatment  of  hogs  to  prevent  cholera  (Fig.  40) 
should  be  repeated  several  times  by  the  students.  Likewise  there 
should  be  practice  in  the  treatment  of  hogs  for  lice,  worms,  and 
other  common  ailments.  Students  should  practice  castration  of 
pigs,  the  correction  of  ruptures,  the  removal  of  tusks  of  boars,  and 
similar  common  operations. 

It  is  sometimes  good  practice  for  students  to  prepare  a  bunch  of 


Fin.   43. — These  Nebraska  students,  after  studying  lambs,  stopped  to  have 
their  picture  taken. 

pigs  or  other  animals  for  exhibition.  Begin  a  few  weeks  before 
fair  time  and  give  them  feeds  which  will  keep  them  in  good  con- 
dition and  aid  their  appearance.  Wash  and  brush  the  skin  fre- 
quently and  treat  the  coats  with  olive  oil  or  other  materials. 

Exercises  with  Sheep. — Many  lessons  can  be  learned  by  taking 
trips  to  farms  where  sheep  are  kept.  At  lambing  time,  the  special 
management  of  lambs  and  ewes  to  solve  the  numerous  difficulties 
which  arise  should  be  studied  and  compared.  What  pasture  ro- 
tations are  practiced  to  control  stomach  worms?  Compare  methods 
of  housing  in  winter  and  let  this  study  include  numbers  kept  in 
each  flock;  methods  of  feeding;  kinds  of  racks  used;  what  farmers 
arc  most  careful  in  their  separating  of  flocks  of  animals  of  different 
grades,  as  large  from  small,  young  from  old,  males  from  females,  etc. 


COMMUNITY  SURVEYS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY        121 

Let  students  practice  docking  (Fig.  41)  washing,  shearing,  cas- 
trating, dipping,  preparing  fleeces  for  market,  trimming  feet 
(Fig.  42)  and  similar  operations  necessarily  made  by  a  good  sheep 
husbandman  (Fig.  43). 

Practical  Studies  and  Exercises  with  Cattle. — There  are  many 
ailments  of  cattle  which  should  be  studied  in  feed  lots,  or  in  their 
home  barns.  Learn  to  diagnose  diseases  and  administer  common 
remedies.  Practice  testing  for  tuberculosis,  treatment  to  prevent 
black  leg,  castration  of  calves,  clipping,  washing,  and  otherwise 
preparing  animals  for  show.  Visit  packing  plants  and  study  the 
methods  of  inspection  used  by  government  officials.  Study  the 
uses  made  of  different  parts  of  the  carcass,  the  curing  and  preserv- 
ing of  meats  of  all  kinds  of  animals. 

While  visiting  the  various  farms  where  cattle  are  kept,  investi- 
gate by  talking  with  the  owners  and  by  careful  observation  of 
methods  and  results,  the  relation  of  type  to  purpose.  Decide 
whether  dairy  type,  beef  type,  or  dual-purpose  type  are  best  in 
each  particular  case.  Determine  what  disposal  is  made  of  the  male 
calves  of  each  type  of  animals  kept  in  the  neighborhood. 

Determine  cost  of  raising  calves  to  the  age  of  use  for  veal,  to 
the  age  of  use  for  baby  beef,  and  to  the  age  for  use  as  breeding 
animals.  The  facts  for  this  investigation  should  be  obtained 
through  visits  to  farms  where  accounts  and  records  of  the  cost  of 
production  are  kept. 

Animal  Husbandry  at  the  School. — In  regions  where  the  farms 
are  not  well  supplied  with  high-grade  or  pure-bred  animals  of  differ- 
ent types,  it  may  be  advisable  for  the  school  to  own  such  livestock. 
The  school  may  thus  be  the  center  of  instruction  for  the  com- 
munity as  well  as  for  the  pupils.  Farmers  may  be  led  to  study  the 
different  types  of  animals  and  decide  to  start  herds  for  themselves. 

If  work  horses  are  kept  at  the  school,  they  should  be  of  the  best 
type,  and  preferably  they  should  be  brood  mares.  If  they  are  pure 
bred  and  the  offspring  are  registered,  the  school  may  soon  become  a 
center  for  the  introduction  and  distribution  of  good  blood  in  the 
community.  Students  and  instructors  will  find  opportunity  for 
using  such  animals  for  judging  purposes,  for  comparison  with 
native  stock,  for  study  of  types  and  breeds,  as  well  as  for  lessons  in 
care  and  management,  and  prevention  of  diseases. 

Community  Surveys  in  Animal  Husbandry.4 — An  instructor  in 

4  Other  suggestions  for  fanii  surveys  are  given  in  Chapters  V,  and  VII 
to  XII. 


122  HOW  TO  TEACH  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

animal  husbandry  should  be  familiar  with  the  conditions  which 
prevail  in  the  region.  He  should  know  what  pure-bred  animals  are 
available  for  study.  He  should  know  what  conditions  for  housing 
and  care  of  animals  are  to  be  found  on  the  various  farms ;  what  feeds 
are  being  used;  what  plans  farmers  may  have  for  improving  their 
herds,  etc. 

Community  surveys  are  so  easily  conducted  through  the 
students  of  a  school  that  they  should  be  made  frequently.  No 
single  survey  should  be  extensive.  Perhaps  one  may  cover  the 
subject  of  swine  husbandry  ;  another  later  may  be  devoted  to 
horses;  and  others  to  beef  cattle,  sheep,  and  poultry. 

A  swine  survey  may  be  made  on  a  standard  card  5x8  inches. 
If  the  questions  are  printed,  sufficient  blank  space  may  be  left  for 
the  answering  on  the  card  if  both  sides  of  the  card  are  to  be  used. 
If  the  questions  are  to  be  mimeographed,  typewritten,  or  duplicated 
from  handwriting  with  the  hectograph,  a  larger  card  or  sheet  may 
be  advisable. 

The  question  card  for  the  swine  survey  .should  include  the 
following : 

1.  Name.  18.  Is  meat  cured  and  smoked? 

2.  Location  from  school.  19.  Prices. 

3.  Size  of  farm.  20.  System    of    feeding    sows    with 

4.  Acres  devoted  to  swine  pasture.  litters. 

5.  Acres  devoted  to  yards  and  build-  21.  Annual  cost  on  this  farm. 

ings  for  swine.  22.  System     of     feeding     fattening 

6.  Buildings.  animals. 

7.  Cost  of  buildings.  23.  Annual  cost  on  this  farm. 

8.  Number  of  pure-bred  sows.  24.  Treatment  for  lice. 

9.  Name  of  breed.  25.  Treatment  for  worms. 

10.  Number  of  other  brood  sows.  26.  Treatment  for  cholera. 

11.  Number  and  name  of  sire.  27.  Other    swine    troubles    on     the 

12.  Number  of  pigs  raised  to  wean-  farm. 

ing  age  during  the  year.  28.  Deaths  and  causes  in  the  past 

13.  Are  offspring  registered?  year. 

14.  At  what  ages  are  surplus  animals      29.  Kinds  of  wallows. 

sold  for  breeding  purposes?  30.  Pasture  crops  grown  during  the 

15.  Prices.  year. 

16.  At  what  age  or  weight  are  surplus      31.  Means     of     supplying     mineral 

animals  killed  and  sold  for  meat?  feeds. 

17.  Sanitary  precautions.  32.  Provisions  for  watering. 

How  to  Use  the  Card. — After  enough  cards  have  been  prepared 
either  by  printing  them  or  otherwise  multiplying  them,  students 
should  be  instructed  regarding  the  method  of  answering  the  ques- 
tions or  giving  the  information  desired.  Go  over  the  cards  and 
show  the  students  how  to  fill  the  blanks.  Send  one  card  to  the 


OTHER  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  SURVEYS  123 

home  of  each  farmer  with  the  request  that  the  information  be  sup- 
plied and  the  cards  returned  on  a  certain  day. 

After  the  cards  have  been  returned,  certain  students  may  be 
assigned  the  task  of  tabulating  the  information  received  from  the 
first  seven  points.  Another  group  of  students  may  be  assigned 
another  set  of  points,  as  from  eight  to  nineteen,  inclusive.  Let 
another  group  of  students  tabulate  the  results  of  the  information 
obtained  regarding  the  feeding  questions  twenty  to  twenty-three. 
Another  assignment  may  include  the  tabulation  and  adjustment  of 
the  information  gained  regarding  the  treatment  of  swine  troubles 
of  various  kinds. 

When  all  the  information  has  been  tabulated  by  different  stu- 
dents, not  only  the  instructor  but  the  students  will  be  rather 
familiar  with  the  actual  conditions  prevailing  in  the  community 
regarding  all  the  points  covered  by  the  survey.  They  will  have 
made  comparisons  regarding  methods,  equipment,  results,  etc. 
Assignments  should  be  made  to  the  class  to  criticize  the  methods 
of  feeding  as  reported  by  certain  swine  growers.  The  income  and 
profit  may  be  calculated  from  the  results  reported,  comparisons  may 
be  made  regarding  the  keeping  of  graded  or  pure-bred  swine  as 
rejjorted  on  the  different  cards.  The  benefits  derived  from  pas- 
turing may  be  shown  if  cards  are  properly  filled. 

The  results  of  the  survey  may  be  taken  as  a  guide  for  each  of  the 
future  studies  in  swine  husbandry.  In  the  study  of  diseases,  their 
prevention  and  treatment,  much  may  be  learned  from  the  survey 
cards  if  the  information  is  fully  given.  Lessons  in  marketing  may 
be  gained  from  the  information  on  the  cards.  Calculations  may 
be  made  regarding  the  profits  from  killing  and  curing  meats  on 
the  farm. 

Special  inquiries  may  be  made  regarding  any  particular  points 
which  it  is  desired  to  study  at  the  school.  These  may  be  given 
special  answers  if  some  of  the  students  are  conducting  swine  pro- 
jects of  their  own,  and  details  regarding  conditions  in  the  neighbor- 
hood are  likely  to  add  interest  and  information  to  the  project 
studies.  For  example,  it  is  well  to  know  the  amount  of  shrinkage 
in  weight  of  carcasses  during  butchering,  that  is,  comparing  live 
weights  with  dressed  weights.  Some  farmers  may  also  be  able  to 
give  information  regarding  the  loss  in  weights  of  meat  during  curing 
in  dry  salt,  in  brine,  and  in  smoking. 

Other  Animal  Husbandry  Surveys. — The  preceding  outline  for 
the  swine  survey  may  be  taken  as  a  guide  for  conduct  ing  surveys 


124  HOW  TO  TEACH  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

in  other  lines  of  animal  husbandry.  In  preparing  a  set  of  questions 
for  the  survey  it  is  well  to  have  members  of  the  class  suggest  ques- 
tions along  the  different  lines  of  inquiry.  Every  effort  should  1x3 
made  to  make  the  questions  very  concise,  easily  answered,  and  on 
the  whole  comprehensive.  Never  attempt  to  carry  on  two  surveys 
at  the  same  time.  One  is  enough  to  frighten  some  of  the  farmers, 
and  they  will  object  to  answering  many  of  them  at  one  time. 

Some  instructors  have  found  it  advisable  even  to  divide  the 
information  wished  regarding  one  kind  of  farm  animal  into  several 
sets  of  questions,  sent  out  at  different  times.  Thus  the  questions 
regarding  the  numbers  and  breeds  are  separated  by  a  week  or  more 
from  those  regarding  diseases,  or  those  regarding  costs  of  market- 
ing. The  simpler  the  questionnaires  the  more  complete  the  answers 
are  likely  to  be. 

Supplementary  Aids  in  Teaching  Animal  Husbandry. — There 
are  a  number  of  good  animal-husbandry  charts  which  should  be 
used  in  the  teaching  of  the  subject.  The  best  are  those  which 
bring  out  well  the  points  in  the  selection  of  animals.  A  chart  con- 
taining poor  pictures  of  the  animals  of  different  breeds  is  of  little 
value  in  the  teaching  of  the  subject.  Superior  colored  pictures  can 
be  obtained  or  enlarged  photographs  may  be  made  or  purchased. 
These  can  be  used  in  making  charts  for  use  in  the  schools  or  they 
may  lye  framed  or  mounted  under  glass  with  passepartout  binding. 
Moving  picture  films  of  superior  animals  may  be  obtained  from 
breed  registry  associations.5 

There  are  a  number  of  good  stereoscopic  views  on  animal  hus- 
bandry which  are  worth  having  in  the  study  room  or  in  the  labora- 
tory. Get  lists  of  these  and  select  from  them  carefully.  Lantern 
slides  of  animal  husbandry  subjects  should  be  made  from  photo- 
graphs taken  in  the  vicinity  if  possible.6  If  not  enough  of  this  kind 
can  be  secured,  others  should  be  purchased  to  supplement  the  local 
ones.  The  best  slides  are  those  which  show  operations  and  methods 
rather  than  mere  types  and  breeds. 

Skeletons,  plaster  casts,  and  papier-mache  models  of  various 
farm  animals  or  organs  of  them  are  available  and  may  be  secured 
by  schools  able  to  purchase  them.  Bones,  skulls,  and  jaws  of 
animals  are  sometimes  found  or  obtained  from  dead  animals,  and 
should  be  saved  for  instruction  purposes.  Hoofs  of  horses  are 
valuable  in  showing  the  structure  and  uses  of  parts. 

b  See  Chapter  XVI  and  Appendix. 
6  See  Chapter  XVI. 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  APPARATUS 


125 


Specimens  showing  diseased  glands  or  other  parts  of  animals 
may  be  preserved  in  formaldehyde  solution  for  ready  reference  arid 


Fio.  44. — In  these  projects  plenty  of  cood  clover  and  grass  pasture 

are  used  to  keep  the  pigs  growing  well  and  their  mothers  in  thrifty 

condition.     (Upper,  from  P*.  L.  Guilbeau,  T.a.    Lower  from  E.  K. 

Thompson,  Luther,  Okla.) 

use  in  classes  and  laboratory  work.     Get  these  at    post-mortem 
examinations. 

Animal  Husbandry  Apparatus. — Models  to  show  draft  may  be 


126  HOW  TO  TEACH  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

made  by  members  of  the  class  if  not  purchased  from  supply  houses. 
Have  measuring  tapes,  poles,  and  measuring  sticks  with  slides  for 
taking  all  measurements  of  animals  in  judging  exercises. 

Have  samples  of  feed  boxes,  watering  devices,  oiling  apparatus, 
sprayers,  instruments  for  extracting  teeth,  treating  bloat,  castra- 
tion, syringes,  clinical  thermometers,  milk-fever  outfits;  hypodermic 
syringes  and  needles,  and  other  simple  veterinary  instruments. 

Each  school  should  have  a  case  containing  first-aid  outfits  and 
common  medicines.  Have  hanging  in  cases  or  attached  to  wall- 
boards  such  things  as  the  following:  Bridle  bits  of  many  types; 
head-stalls;  dissected  collars;  dissected  saddles;  samples  of  braided 
manes  and  tails;  samples  of  rope  splices  and  knots;  many  types  of 
curry-combs  and  brushes,  and  mane-combs  and  carders;  samples 
of  wool  and  rnohair  of  all  types.  Have  samples  of  stock  feeds  in 
glass  bottles  and  jars  so  they  may  be  ready  for  use  in  classes  and 
laboratory  work.  Have  ingredients  of  typical  balanced  rations. 

Sciences  Aid  in  Teaching  Animal  Husbandry. — The  chief 
sciences  which  aid  instructors  of  animal  husbandry  are:  Chemistry, 
particularly  that  part  which  relates  to  feeds;  veterinary  science; 
human  physiology;  zoology,  including  biology  of  parasites;  the 
principles  of  physics  as  relating  to  draft. 

Animal  husbandry  in  rural  schools  should  be  based  chiefly  on 
practices  of  the  community  and  animals  found  in  the  community. 
Expensive  equipment  is  usually  impossible  and  unnecessary. 
Animals  may  be  brought  to  the  school  without  great  difficulty.  If, 
however,  the  classes  can  be  taken  to  farms  for  studying  swine, 
sheep,  and  other  animals,  near  the  end  of  the  school  day,  they  will 
be  able  to  study  many  features  of  management  and  learn  methods 
and  operations  practiced  by  owners. 

Comparative  judging  of  animals  to  teach  the  principles  of 
selection  may  best  be  done  on  the  home  farms  of  the  students 
or  neighbors. 

Lessons  with  Animals  in  School  Grades. — Children  below  high 
school,  either  in  the  country  or  in  villages  or  cities,  can  be  given  many 
valuable  lessons  which  will  interest  them  in  animal  husbandly  and 
add  greatly  to  their  general  intelligence.  They  can  learn  to  know 
all  the  breeds  of  common  animals  alxmt  them.  They  should  also 
know  the  general  differences  between  types  of  horses,  types  of  hogs, 
types  of  sheep,  and  types  of  cattle.  They  can  learn  to  know  uses  of 
all  animal  products.  Habits  of  animals  should  be  studied  regard- 
ing natural  grazing,  differences  in  digestive  systems,  sets  of  teeth, 


HOW  TO  TEACH  A  LESSON  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY       127 

and  many  other  simple  lessons  largely  founded  upon  common 
knowledge  and  observation. 

Animal  Husbandry  Short  Courses. — When  high  schools  offer 
courses  in  animal  husbandry  they  should  base  these  courses  upon 
surveys  previously  made  in  the  region.  These  surveys  should  re- 
veal the  needs  of  the;  community.  Ix>t  those  particular  phas(«  which 
will  meet  the  needs  be  emphasized  strongly.  Most  other  lines  of 
livestock  work  may  be  omitted.  Specialists  should  be  secured  who 
can  best  present  the  particular  phases  that  are  to  be  emphasized 
during  the  short  course.  The  topics  should  be  presented  by  means 
of  demonstrations  and  with  the  best  specimens  of  animals  available 
to  illustrate  particular  points.  If,  for  example,  the  subject  of  com- 
mon diseases  of  animals  is  being  presented,  there  should  be  good 
examples  of  animals  showing  diseases.  The  same  principle  applies 
to  all  lessons  in  animal  husbandry.  Usually  the  students  are 
attending  for  particular  purposes  and  they  should  be  able  to 
secure  from  the  short  course  all  lessons  they  need  to  know. 

In  college  short  courses  let  those  who  know  the  needs  of  the 
state  or  section  be  the  ones  to  designate  the  topics  and  divisions  of 
the  subjects  that  are  to  form  the  courses.  Omit  theories  as  far  as 
possible.  Include  such  principles  as  will  make  clear  the  reasons  and 
practices  recommended. 

How  to  Teach  a  Lesson  hi  Animal  Husbandry. — Suppose  the 
lesson  assignment  has  previously  been  made  on  the  general  topic 
of  hog  pastures  (Fig.  44).  The  different  students  may  have  been 
assigned  such  special  phases  of  the  topic  as:  Suitable  pasture  crops 
for  early  spring;  suitable  pasture  crops  for  hot  summer  months; 
suitable  pasture  crops  for  fall  and  early  winter;  substitutes  for 
pastures  in  winter  seasons;  hurdle  and  other  fencing  for  temporary 
hog  pastures;  watering  systems  on  temporary  pastures.  Different 
authors  should  have  been  cited  for  each  of  the  assignments  made. 
Let  certain  students  be  required  to  have  ready  to  show  to  the  class 
good  pictures  of  the  different  pasture  crops.  So  far  as  possible  they 
should  also  be  ready  to  show  specimens  of  the  pasture  plants  of  the 
different  seasons.  Have  thesespecimensfresh  rather  than  dry  mounts. 

At  the  time  of  the  recitation  let  the  topics  be  taken  up  in  the 
order  suggested  above.  On  the  blackboard  or  on  large  sheets  of 
paj>er  let  each  student  draw  a  series  of  pasture  lots.  In  these  lots 
write  the  names  of  the  pasture  crops  for  three  or  more  seasons  in 
rotation.  The  members  of  the  class  should  learn  the  possibility  and 
the  problems  involved  in  making  a  continuous  pasturage  system  for 


128  HOW  TO  TEACH  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

the  growing  seasons  of  the  year.  To  help  teach  this,  the  value  of 
pasturage  for  swine  should  be  reviewed  and  impressed  by  questions 
from  the  instructor.  Have  specimens  and  pictures  of  the  plants 
shown  and  let  their  relative  values  for  pig  feeding  be  discussed  by 
members  of  the  class.  Special  treatments  for  the  management  of 
certain  kinds  of  pasture  should  be  developed.  Skilful  questioning 
may  be  necessary.  Students  should  be  called  upon  to  give 
examples  for  uses  made  of  the  different  pasture  plants  in  their 
observations  and  experiences. 

When  the  topic  of  winter  substitutes  for  pastures  is  up  for  con- 
sideration the  question  of  how  to  raise  winter  litters  of  pigs  on  these 
substitutes  may  be  developed.  Show  specimens  of  stored  root  crops, 
alfalfa  hay,  silage,  and  other  winter  substitutes. 

If  possible,  let  this  recitation  take  place  out  of  doors  on  a  pig 
pasture.  In  that  case  a  blackboard  exercise  may  be  omitted,  as  a 
field  or  lot  on  the  land  laboratory  or  farm  will  be  much  better. 

Animal  Husbandry  Readings. — Let  students  be  induced  to 
read  reports  of  animal  husbandry  conventions,  fairs,  tests  of  ani- 
mals, contests  of  college  and  school  judging  teams,  and  other  val- 
uable matter  which  appears  from  time  to  time  in  magazines. 
Assignments  may  be  made  for  the  report  of  animal  husbandry  news 
and  articles  of  interest  from  time  to  time.  These  reports  may  be 
made  in  connection  with  suitable  topics  in  class  recitation,  or 
during  trips  of  the  class  in  the  community. 

Discoveries  in  Animal  Husbandry. — Students  should  be  aroused 
to  the  possibilities  of  learning  new  ways  of  doing  things  or  making 
other  discoveries  along  animal  husbandry  lines.  Of  course  the  points 
which  they  seem  to  discover  may  already  be  known  by  others. 
The  mental  action  of  the  student,  however,  is  none  the  less 
valuable.  Read  the  discoveries  suggested  in  the  poultry  chapter. 
Students  should  discover  causes  of  lameness  in  animals;  causes  of 
sickness  of  any  kind;  methods  of  breaking  colts;  better  methods  of 
handling  animals  at  various  times  and  circumstances;  what  bits  are 
Ixist  suited  for  horses  under  different  circumstances;  the  remedies 
for  misfitting  harnesses  and  collars;  the  bad  conditions  of  various 
animals  although  not  sick;  the  best  management  of  pigs,  lambs, 
colts,  and  calves  when  newly  born;  how  to  make  young  animals 
love  their  keepers. 

Animal  Husbandry  Discussions.7 — Teach  students  to  discuss 


See  topics  for  debate,  Chapter  XI. 


THINGS  TO  DO  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  129 

animal  husbandry  topics  at  home  among  each  other  and  among 
their  neighbors.    Several  ways  of  doing  this  may  be  as  follows: 

(1)  Arouse  during  class  recitation  discussions  on  topics  which  have  two 
sides.  (2)  When  such  questions  arise  during  recitations,  tell  them  to  think 
about  them  and  discuss  them  further  and  bring  the  question  up  again  at  a 
later  meeting.  (3)  Assign  definite  debates  for  future  recitations;  let  two 
students  be  assigned  as  leaders  of  two  sides  of  the  question,  and  let  them  choose 
in  turn  their  members  of  the  class  for  the  debate.  (4)  Have  students  ask 
parents  regarding  their  experiences  on  certain  animal  husbandry  topics  about 
which  there  are  differences  of  opinion.  (5)  Have  parents  questioned  regarding 
their  opinion  as  to  certain  animal  husbandry  practices  by  farmers  in  general 
and  fanners  of  the  neighborhood. 

For  these  discussions  such  topics  should  be  selected  as  will 
arouse  interest  in  the  phases  of  animal  husbandry  that  should  be 
stressed  in  the  region.  If  pure-bred  cattle  or  improved  breeds  of 
horses  are  to  be  encouraged,  such  topics  may  be  open  for  discussion. 
For  example,  the  question  of  owning  pure-bred  sires  or  using  scrub 
animals  may  be  started  as  a  neighborhood  debate.  The  practice 
of  immunizing  hogs  against  cholera  may  be  started  for  a  neigh- 
borhood discussion.  There  are  many  other  important  topics  of 
local  interest. 

Observations  in  Animal  Husbandry. — Numerous  points  for 
observation  may  be  called  up  by  instructors.  Or  students  may 
volunteer  their  observations  in  animal  husbandry  at  school. 
Suggest  many  things  which  will  arouse  students  to  be  observing. 
A  number  of  these  are  here  given : 

(1)  Which  way  does  a  horse  move  his  head  in  eating  grass?  (2)  Which 
way  does  a  cow  move  her  hsad  in  eating  grass?  (3)  How  does  a  horse  get  up 
from  lying  down?  (1)  How  does  a  cow  get  up  from  lying  down?  (5)  What 
effect  does  dehorning  have  on  the  disposition  of  cattle?  (6)  What  are  the 
causes  of  nervous  temperaments  in  cattle  and  horses?  (7)  What  are  some  of 
the  causes  of  balkyness  in  horses?  (8)  Are  horses  that  are  balky  usually  stub- 
born in  other  ways?  (9)  Are  willing  horses  or  lazy  horses  most  often  affected 
with  curb?  (10)  Are  colts  more  thrifty  when  allowed  to  follow  with  their  work 
mothers  or  kept  in  paddocks  during  work  hours?  (11)  Are  heavy  sows  or 
light  ones  more  successful  in  raising  their  litters?  (12)  Are  hogs  of  bacon  type 
or  of  lard  type  more  successful  in  raising  their  litters?  (13)  Are  twin  lambs 
less  thrifty  than  others? 

Things  to  Do  in  Animal  Husbandry. — Correct  methods  of  per- 
forming many  operations  in  animal  husbandry  should  be  instilled 
in  the  minds  of  students.  One  of  the  most  important  things  is  for 
them  to  learn  system  and  regularity  in  the  care  of  livestock  of  all 
kinds — regularity  in  feeding,  regularity  in  watering,  regularity  in 
turning  out  to  pasture,  regularity  in  returning  animals  to  the  barn. 
They  should  learn  properly  to  tie  horses  and  colts  so  that  they  can- 
9 


130  HOW  TO  TEACH  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

not  hurt  themselves  at  night  or  other  times.  They  should  learn 
qualities  of  feed  by  actual  practices  so  that  animals  will  not  be  un- 
easy for  want  of  feed  and  will  not  be  injured  by  overfeeding.  Learn 
to  fit  collars  well.  Learn  to  put  on  harnesses  carefully,  correctly, 
and  rapidly.  Learn  to  make  young  animals  take  the  first  milk  after 
they  are  born.  They  should  learn  how  to  feed  calves  and  not  over- 
feed them.  They  should  form  habits  of  sterilizing  vessels  in  which 
young  animals  are  fed.  Teach  them  how  to  make  ewes  own  their 
lambs,  and  how  to  make  them  act  as  foster-mothers  when  they 
have  lost  their  own  lambs.  Teach  them  how  to  treat  simple  animal 


FIG.   45. — Wyoming    high-school   students    of    animal    husbandry    examining   a    horse   for 
unsoundness.     (E.  E.  Knudson.J 

diseases.  Teach  them  how  to  drive  and  work  animals  with  care  to 
get  best  results.  Teach  them  how  to  manage  young  litters  of 
pigs  to  prevent  their  being  crushed.  Teach  them  how  to  drive 
horses  on  hard  roads  without  injury  to  their  feet.  These  suggestions 
are  given  with  the  hope  that  many  others  will  be  brought  to  the 
minds  of  instructors  as  they  are  teaching  students  to  do  things. 

Animal  Husbandry  Practices  to  Establish  Proficiency. — In 
learning  to  do  things  in  animal  husbandry  there  are  a  number  of 
operations  which  require  proficiency.  To  secure  this  much  prac- 
tice is  sometimes  required.  Try  to  train  students  to  become  exact 
and  rapid  in  many  ways.  The  following  are  a  few  of  these  oper- 
ations upon  which  students  should  practice: 

1.  The  detection  of  curb,  hone  spavin,  hog  spavin,  wind  puff,  and  thorough- 
pin  (Fig.  45). 

2.  The  detection  of  ring-hones,  side-bones,  scratches,  and  unsound  hoofs. 
t'J.  The  judging  of  gaits  in  horses  to  detect  imperfections. 

4.  The  detection  of  bad  hearing  and  poor  eyesight  in  animals. 


REFERENCE  B(X)KS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  131 

5.  The  judging  of  ago  of  horses. 

f>.  The  use  of  score  cards  of  different  types  of  animals  of  all  kinds  until 
students  are  able  to  judge  without  score  cards. 

7.  Comparing  animals  in  heart-girth,  hacks  and  loins,  heights  and  widths, 
spring  of  ribs,  length  and  angle  of  pasterns,  and  many  other  important  point*. 

8.  Comparing  light  horses  in  conformation,  heavy  horses  in  conformation, 
beef  cattle  in  conformation. 

9.  Selecting  good  feeders  among  beef  types  of  cattle. 

10.  Selecting  good  breeding  stock  among  swine  and  other  classes. 

11.  Shearing  sheep  until  the  work  is  made  perfect  or  nearly  so. 

12.  Treating  swine  for  cholera  until  no  mistakes  will  be  made. 

Things  to  Solve  in  Animal  Husbandry. — Among  the  trouble- 
some problems  which  present  themselves  to  a  student,  and  even  to 
experienced  men  in  animal  husbandry,  the  following  are  but  a  few 
which  come  to  the  mind  of  a  good  instructor  as  the  work  of  the 
course  progresses: 

1.  When  horses  go  lame,  solve  the  difficulty  by  finding  the  cause  and 
removing  it,  and  applying  proper  remedies. 

2.  When  you  wish  to  produce  hot-house  lambs  for  market,  how  can  the 
ewes  be  induced  to  breed  out  of  season? 

3.  When  sows  cat  their  pigs,  determine  the  cause,  a  good  remedy,  and  stop 
the  difficulty. 

4.  When  animals  are  unthrifty  as  shown  by  their  general  condition  and 
by  their  coats,  find  a  suitable  remedy. 

5.  \Vhen  cows  lose  their  young  prematurely,  determine  the  cause  by 
thorough  investigation,  and  watch  for  the  contagious  form  of  this  difficulty. 

6.  When  sheep  lose  their  wool  in  large  locks,  solve  the  difficulty  if  possible. 

7.  When  colts  or  horses  scratch  their  manes  and  tails,  find  the  trouble 
and  stop  it. 

8.  When  pigs  scratch  on  posts  frequently,  solve  the  trouble  and  apply 
the  remedy. 

9.  When  sheep  have  sore  feet  in  winter  quarters,  find  the  cause  if  possible. 

10.  Determine  how  many  pigs  can  thrive  in  the  beef-feeding  lot   following 
a  given  number  of  steers. 

11.  Calculate  costs  and  determine  whether  it  would   pay  to  purchase  a 
machine  for  shearing  sheep  on  your  farm. 

12.  Solve   the   problems   with    balky   horses,   wind-sucking    horses,   and 
cribbcrs. 

Reference  Books  in  Animal  Husbandry.8 — Be  sure  that  the 
reference  library  contains  several  books  on  each  of  the  following: 
Swine  management,  sheep  husbandry,  beef  cattle,  horse  husbandry, 
common  diseases  of  farm  animals.  Special  reference  books  on 
various  phases,  as  the  breaking  of  colts,  the  marketing  of  animal 
products,  animal  breeding,  judging,  volumes  of  the  pure-bred 
livestock  associations,  and  many  others  should  be  upon  the  shelves 
for  ready  reference.  Get  the  latest  lists  from  which  to  select 
reference  books  before  ordering  the  books.  Such  lists  may  be  ob- 

8  See  Chapter  XVII  and  Appendix. 


132  HOW  TO  TEACH  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

tained  by  writing  to  the  States  Relations  Service,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

Animal  Husbandry  Bulletins. — Secure  all  the  available  farmers' 
bulletins  which  relate  to  any  phase  of  animal  husbandry  and  the 
subject  of  feeds.  Get  the  many  valuable  publications  of  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry  at  Washington.  Obtain  all  the  animal  husbandry 
bulletins  you  can  secure  from  the  state  experiment  stations.  Write 
to  all  of  them,  or  at  least  to  those  in  your  part  of  the  country.  Some 
of  the  stations  issue  very  valuable  bulletins  on  animal  husbandry 
topics.  Get  publications  of  the  various  livestock  associations.  Some 
of  these  issue  popular  bulletins  of  an  instructive  nature.  Besides 
these  bulletins,  rules  for  registering  animals  are  issued. 

Animal  Husbandry  Journals  and  Catalogues.9 — There  are  many 
valuable  periodicals  issued  by  the  different  associations  and  private 
publishers.  It  is  difficult  to  decide  just  which  one  of  these  to  ob- 
tain for  the  school  reading  tables.  If  certain  breeds  of  cattle, 
swine,  etc.,  are  of  more  local  interest  than  others,  the  periodicals 
relating  to  these  breeds  should  be  considered  most  important. 
Some  journals  of  a  more  general  nature  should  also  find  a  place  on 
the  reading  table. 

Frequently  send  for  the  new  catalogues  of  breeders  of  pure-bred 
animals,  and  try  to  get  the  name  of  the  school  placed  on  mailing 
lists  of  noted  breeders,  so  you  will  receive  sale  catalogues  when  they 
are  issued.  These  will  give  valuable  pedigrees  from  which  students 
can  study  blood  lines.  Pictures  of  noted  animals  are  also  obtained 
in  this  way.  Try  to  keep  before  the  students  the  best  things  in  ani- 
mal husbandry  so  that  they  will  form  high  ideals  and  strive  for  the 
best  in  their  future  careers. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  equipment  you  would  want  for  the  school  in  which 
you  were  going  to  teach  animal  husbandry.    So  far  as  possible,  get  prices  for 
each  of  the  items  in  this  equipment. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  laboratory  exercises  which  would  aid  students  studying 
feeds  and  feeding. 

3.  Make    a    list    of   laboratory    exercises    for   students   studying    swine 
husbandry. 

4.  Draw  plans  for  the  construction  of  a  suitable  farrowing  house,  for  your 
climate. 

5.  Draw  plans  for  a  good  sheep  shed  and  make  a  list  of  material  for 
erecting  it. 

6.  Plan  and  build  a  good  hay  rack  for  sheep  and  another  for  cattle.    Why 
should  they  be  different? 

7.  Plan  and  build  a  hog  feeding  hopper  and  figure  its  cost. 

9  See  Chapter  XVII  and  Appendix. 


QUESTIONS  133 

8.  Conduct  a  community  survey  in  one  line  of  animal  husbandry,  such  as 
you  would  have  your  class  conduct. 

9.  Make  one  or  several  animal  husbandry  charts,  which  will  teach  special 
lessons  and  may  be  used  in  class-room  or  in  fanners'  meetings. 

10.  Make  a  list  of  ways  in  which  the  chemistry  department,  biology 
department,    or     physics    department     may    correlate     their     work    with 
animal  husbandry. 

11.  Make  a  good  short-course  program  for  a  three-days'  course  in  animal 
husbandry  suited  to  the  fanners  of  your  state. 

12.  Outline  two  or  three  type  lessons  on  animal  husbandry  each  as  full 
as  the  "hog  pasture"  lesson  is  outlined  in  this  chapter. 

13.  Make  a  list  of  ten  topics  suitable  for  debate  in  animal  husbandry  lines. 

14.  Make  a  collection  of  hoofs,  jaws,  skulls,  teeth,  and  other  parts  to  aid 
in  teaching  animal  husbandry. 

15.  Make  a  list  of  the  best  reference  books  to  be  had  in  each  of  these 
fields  of  study:   horses,  beef  cattle,  dairy  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  State  concisely  the  specific  aim  in  animal  husbandry. 

2.  Suggest  important  special  methods  in  teaching  animal  husbandry. 

3.  Why  would  you  want  a  full  animal  husbandry  equipment  on  your  farm 

if  you  were  teaching  in  a  normal  school  or  college? 

4.  Why  would  you  not  want  a  full  animal  husbandry  equipment  on  your 

grounds  if  you  were  teaching  high  school  agriculture? 

5.  How  does  the  equipment  of  the  fanns  of  the  region  influence  the  amount 

of  equipment  you  would  have  at  your  school? 

6.  How  would  you  conduct  a  laboratory  exercise  in  studying  the  composition 

of  mixed  feed? 

7.  Mention  ten  points  you  would  have  students  observe  in  examining  a  horse 

for  unspundness. 

8.  Give  the  advantages  of  post-mortem  examinations  in  teacliing  animal 

husbandry. 

9.  Give  a  list  of  things  to  make  while  students  are  pursuing  projects  in 

animal  husbandry. 

10.  Why  would  you  teach  docking,  washing,  shearing,  castrating,  dipping, 

and  preparing  fleece  for  market? 

11.  How  would  you  teach  each  of  these? 

12.  How  would  you  teach  the  importance  of  pure-bred  sires  in  a  community? 

13.  How  would  you  use  livestock  of  your  region  in  teaching  lessons  to  the  class? 

14.  Give  reasons  for  an  animal  husbandry  survey. 

15.  Mention  the  most  important  questions  for  a  typical  survey. 

16.  How  would  you  obtain  answers  to  these  questions? 

17.  How  would  you  "digest"  th?  results  of  a  unit  survey? 

18.  Give  a  list  of  unit  surveys  in  animal  husbandry. 

19.  Give  a  list  of  good  subjects  1'wr  local  lantern  slides  in  animal  husbandry. 

20.  What  may  be  the  value  of  special  assignments  in  animal  husbandry 

magazines? 

21.  Mention  a  number  of  discoveries  to  be  made  in  animal  husbandry. 

22.  Give  good  subjects  for  animal  husbandry  discussions. 

23.  Give  good  subjects  for  animal  husbandry  observations. 

24.  Give  good  subjects  for  animal  husbandry  drills. 

25.  Give  a  list  of  things  to  solve  in  animal  husbandry. 

References. — Bulletins  on  teaching  animal  husbandry:      H.  R.  Smith, 
Univ.  of  Neb.;  U.  S.  Office  Exp.  Stix,  Cir.  100;  Purdue  University  Bui. 


CHAPTER  VII 
HOW  TO  TEACH  DAIRYING 

THE  specific  aim  of  the  work  in  dairying  is  to  enable  young 
people  to  obtain  such  a  knowledge  of  the  characteristics,  care, 
management,  breeding,  improvement  and  sale  of  the  dairy  breeds 
of  cattle  and  the  handling,  manufacture,  use  and  marketing  of  their 
products  as  will  prepare  them  for  success  in  special  dairy  farming. 

The  aims  in  this  chapter  are  (1)  to  give  suggestions  on  how  to 
teach  the  dairy  husbandry  side  of  this  subject  and  (2)  to  suggest 
how  to  teach  the  handling,  manufacturing,  and  marketing  side  of 
the  business.  The  first  of  these  two  aims  has  been  partly  met  in 
the  preceding  chapter  on  the  teaching  of  animal  husbandry.  A 
number  of  suggestions  dealing  particularly  with  dairying  are  given 
in  the  present  chapter  to  supplement  those  suggested  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapter. 

Animal  Husbandry  Equipment  for  Teaching  Dairying. — In  many 
high  schools  offering  vocational  dairying  and  having  farms  of  their 
own,  a  small  dairy  herd  is  kept  at  the  school.  When  such  equip- 
ment is  provided  the  barn  for  the  housing  of  stock  should  be  of  a 
model  character  so  that  conditions  may  be  somewhat  ideal  for  the 
production  of  clean  milk.  Good  stalls,  preferably  of  iron,  concrete 
floors,  and  gutters,  good  facilities  for  handling  and  storing  feed 
should  be  provided. 

The  number  of  cows  in  the  school  dairy  herd  need  not  be  very 
large  so  far  as  the  teaching  value  is  concerned.  If  the  school  is  pro- 
vided with  a  herd  of  dairy  cattle  certain  other  equipment  is  also 
necessary,  such  as  a  silo,  pasture,  and  exercise  lot.  Some  ad- 
ditional machinery  may  be  required,  such  as  a  manure  spreader, 
wagon  for  hauling  feed  and  hay,  ensilage  cutter,  market  wagon, 
and  perhaps  tillage  implements.  The  latter  will  be  needed  in  case 
field  crops  are  raised  for  the  cattle. 

Other  Dairy  Equipment.— A 11  schools  teaching  dairying,  either 
as  a  special  subject  or  as  a  part  of  the  general  course  in  animal 
husbandry,  should  be  well  provided  with  testing  equipment.  This 
would  include  one  or  more  centrifugal  machines,  milk  testing 
bottles,  cream  testing  bottles,  skim-milk  and  buttermilk  bottles, 
pipettes,  acid  measurers,  a  supply  of  commercial  sulfuric  acid,  milk 
134 


OTHER  DAIRY  EQUIPMENT  135 

sample  bottles,  milk  weighing  scales  for  weighing  milk  from  the 
herd,  cream  scales  for  weighing  test  samples,  preserving  tablets, 
milk  weighing  record  sheets,  a  Nefus  tester  for  testing  the  accuracy 
of  glassware,  dividers  for  reading  fat  columns,  etc. 

In  special  dairy  courses,  instruction  should  be  given  in  the 
bottling  of  milk  and  cream,  the  manufacture  of  butter,  and  the 
making  of  one  or  more  kinds  of  cheese.  Apparatus  for  bottling 
should  include  a  small  multiple  bottler,  a  good  aerator  and  cooler, 
and  utensils  suitable  for  handling  milk  and  cream  received  in  the 
laboratory.  One  or  more  types  of  hand  separators  should  be 
available  for  use  in  the  laboratory. 

For  butter  making  have  one  or  more  churns  of  suitable  size  to 
accommodate  the  size  of  the  class  and  to  handle  the  amount  of  prod- 
uct desired.  In  regions  where  home  butter  making  is  the  chief 
form  to  be  taught,  churns  of  suitable  size  for  home  use  should  be 
used  even  if  several  are  required  at  the  school.  Small  revolving 
churns  of  the  barrel  type,  either  made  of  wood  or  crockery,  are 
good  for  home  use.  Butter  molders,  bottles,  apparatus  for  test- 
ing acidity  of  cream,  butter  color,  salt,  parchment  paper,  sanitary 
cartons,  etc.,  should  be  provided.  Several  of  these  are  supplies 
which  will  need  to  be  renewed  as  used.  If  large  quantities  are  to 
be  made  and  handled  in  wholesale  quantities,  perhaps  methods  of 
packing  in  butter  boxes  and  tubs  should  be  taught.  Provide  butter 
boxes,  tubs,  and  packers  for  this  purpose.  Cutters  showing  how 
boxes  and  tubs  of  butter  may  be  cut  into  pound  molds  should  be 
found  in  the  school  equipment.  Scales  for  weighing  butter,  salt, 
etc.,  are  necessary. 

Vats  for  handling  large  amounts  of  milk  and  cream  may  be 
necessary.  Cheese  vats  or  large  vessels  should  be  ready  for  use  in 
teaching  methods  of  making  cheese.  If  cheddar  cheese  is  to  be 
made,  presses  should  be  either  improvised  or  purchased. 

The  dairy  laboratory  should  be  provided  with  suitable  sinks  and 
with  hot  and  cold  water  for  the  washing  of  dairy  utensils.  For  this 
work  provide  brushes  of  several  types.  It  is  desirable  that  the 
dairy  floor  be  made  of  concrete  and  that  this  floor  slope  to  a  floor 
drain  at  one  side  or  in  the  center. 

If  a  number  of  dairy  cows  are  kept,  or  if  the  school  maintains  a 
neighborhood  milk  depot  or  large  bottling  plant  or  butter  factory 
for  farmers  of  the  region,  much  additional  apparatus  will  be  needed. 
In  such  cases  a  special  dairy  expert  will  be  employed  and  perhaps 
one  or  more  assistants  will  be  needed.  Facilities  for  marketing  the 


136  HOW  TO  TEACH  DAIRYING 

products  will  be  included  in  the  additional  equipment.  Large 
weighing  cans  and  scales  for  measuring  milk  or  cream  supplied  by 
farmers  of  the  neighborhood  will  be  neceasary. 

Class  Work  in  Dairying. — It  may  be  assumed  that  in  many 
schools  the  class  work  may  be  based  upon  home  projects  conducted 
by  students  of  the  class.  If  the  home  project  plan  of  instruction 
is  not  possible  because  students  live  in  boarding  houses  or  dormi- 
tories, it  may  be  possible  for  members  of  the  class  to  perform  group 
work  in  projects  at  the  school  or  college. 

In  any  case,  the  class  instruction  should  be  based  upon  practice 
work  of  the  students.  This  practice  work  should,  if  possible,  be 
conducted  at  the  same  time  of  year  as  the  class  instruction  is 
given.  In  some  cases,  however,  the  practice  work  may  precede 
the  class  instruction. 

The  lessons  in  dairying  should  consist  of  topics  directly  con- 
nected with  steps  in  project  operations.  Examples  of  the  steps  in 
such  projects  are:  Judging  dairy  cattle;  selecting  a  dairy  herd; 
selecting  a  sire;  culling  a  dairy  herd;  raising  dairy  calves;  develop- 
ing dairy  heifers;  constructing  sanitary  barns;  controlling  diseases 
in  herds;  problems  in  feeding;  registration  and  advance  registry; 
sale  of  pure-bred  stock;  manufacturing  of  dairy  products  and 
marketing  dairy  products. 

A  Type  Lesson  in  Dairying. — Suppose  that  the  lesson  assign- 
ment at  a  preceding  meeting  of  the  class  has  been  upon  the 
subject  of  culling  a  dairy  herd.  Suppose  also  that  the  class  under- 
stands the  methods  of  testing  milk.  In  the  assignment  of  the  lesson 
students  should  be  given  topics  individually  or  in  small  groups 
such  as:  (1)  Calculate  the  butter-fat  income  from  the  five  poorest 
cows  in  each  of  five  herds  in  a  certain  cow-test  association's  reports. 

(2)  Calculate  the  income  from  the  five  best  cows  in  these  same  herds. 

(3)  Calculate  the  average  income  of  the  best  cow  in  each  of  all  the 
herds  in  that  association.    (4)  Calculate  the  average  income  of  the 
lowest  cows  in  all  the  herds  of  that  association.    (5)  Compare  the 
average  income  per  cow  from  the  highest  and  lowest  producers  in 
five  of  the  herds.    (6)  Compare  the  incomes  of  the  ten  poorest  cows 
in  the  association  with  the  ten  best  cows  in  the  association.    (7)  De- 
scribe how  cow- testing  associations  are  conducted  and  financed. 
(8)  Figure  the  cost  and  profits  for  the  owner  of  the  largest  number 
of  cows  in  this  association. 

For  studying  this  lesson  the  class  should  have  enough  copies  of 
the  report  of  a  large  cow-test  association  which  has  been  running 


DAIRY  LABORATORY  WORK  137 

for  one  or  more  years.  Such  reports  may  be  obtained  by  writing  to 
dairy  divisions  of  state  experiment  stations.  Students  in  studying 
the  lesson  may  be  shown  how  they  can  make  graphic  representa- 
tions of  the  figures  which  they  have  gleaned  from  special  assign- 
ments made. 

At  the  time  of  the  class  recitation,  let  each  group  be  called  upon 
to  report.  Perhaps  the  first  topic  should  be  number  seven  above. 
The  students  who  have  made  graphic  representations  of  their  topic 
studies  should  put  them  on  the  blackboard.  Have  available  at 
class  time  good  and  poor  dairy  cows  to  show  to  the  members  of  the 
class  to  illustrate  the  different  types  of  producers  which  they  have 
been  studying.  If  the  cow-test  association  is  a  local  one,  the  very 
cows  that  are  the  poorest  and  the  best  in  the  association  may  be 
brought  together  for  comparison.  If  cows  are  not  available  for  use 
at  the  time  of  this  class  recitation,  photographs  or  other  pictures  of 
them  may  be  exhibited.  Careful  questioning  on  the  part  of  the 
instructor  will  induce  all  members  of  the  class  to  fix  strongly  in  their 
minds  the  value  of  cow-test  association  work  as  means  of  culling 
of  the  dairy  herds.  The  methods  of  weighing  and  testing  milk 
regularly  and  calculating  the  income  from  these  results  should  be 
drilled  upon  until  the  instructor  is  sure  that  every  member  of  the 
class  understands  the  required  conditions  for  culling  dairy  herds. 
Several  examples  of  figuring  incomes  from  individual  cows  may  be 
worked  out  on  the  blackboard  by  members  of  the  class.  One  or 
more  charts  which  will  show  clearly  to  the  class  the  value  of 
testing  and  weighing  may  be  used  in  this  recitation.  At  the  close 
of  the  recitation,  suggestions  from  members  of  the  class  may  be 
volunteered  for  the  disposal  of  poor  dairy  cows.  Are  they  suitable 
for  beef?  Is  the  owner  losing  money  by  disposing  of  these  cows  at 
prices  lower  than  prices  of  good  dairy  cows?  (See  the  type  lessons 
in  Chapters  VIII  to  XII.) 

Dairy  Laboratory  Work. — If  the  school  is  equipped  with  a  pro- 
duction laboratory  in  dairying,  i.e.,  a  dairy  herd  and  barn  with 
necessary  surroundings,  the  members  of  the  class  should  have  reg- 
ular practice  work  with  this  equipment.  There  are  two  good  ways 
of  managing  the  labor  problem  connected  with  such  a  dairy  barn. 

1.  The  members  of  the  class  may  be  given  definite  assignments 
for  certain  specified  days  and  hours  for  duty  in  the  dairy  barn. 
There  they  will  do  at  certain  hours  the  milking  in  their  turn,  the 
cleaning  of  cows  in  their  turn,  the  feeding  of  animals  and  handling 
of  manure.  Other  assignments  of  barn  work  may  be  the  hauling  of 


138 


HOW  TO  TEACH  DAIRYING 


concentrates,  fodder,  and  hay;  the  care  of  calves  and  dry  stock; 
the  cleaning  of  the  barn  lot;  the  taking  of  cows  to  and  from  pasture. 
The  assignment  for  each  student  should  be  carefully  scheduled  by 
the  instructor,  so  that  no  student  will  have  the  same  kind  of  work 
for  too  long  a  time.  All  students  should  be  allowed  to  have  prac- 
tice in  all  the  kinds  of  work  with  the  herd.  An  instructor  or  fore- 
man should  be  on  hand  when  students  are  performing  this 
laboratory  work  so  that  proper  instruction  can  be  given  them. 


Fid.  46. — Dairy  students  maKing  ice  cream.     (R.  S.  Mackintosh.) 

Perhaps  advanced  students  in  the  school  in  the  capacity  of  moni- 
tors or  instructors  should  be  at  the  barn. 

2.  The  project  plan  of  conducting  the  work  with  the  dairy  herd 
is  used  in  some  schools.  First,  the  herd  is  divided  into  small  groups 
with  certain  cows  or  animals  in  the  group.  These  groups  are  let- 
tered and  a  printed  or  typewritten  list  is  posted  where  all  students 
may  know  how  the  animals  are  grouped.  Each  student  will  do  all 
the  work  necessary  for  the  complete  care  of  the  animals  in  his  group. 
Suppose  he  has  a  group  of  three  milch  cows.  He  will  water,  feed, 
clean,  remove  the  manure,  and  milk  this  group.  Another  student 
may  have  a  group  of  calves  or  dry  eat  tie  and  completely  care  for 


INDOOR  LABORATORY  WORK  IN  DAIRYING 


139 


them.  The  length  of  time  which  each  student  does  the  project 
work  with  his  group  should  be  planned  so  that  the  members  of  the 
class  will  have  two  kinds  of  projects  with  the  herd  during  the  course. 
When  a  student  takes  up  the  project  of  a  former  dairy  student  the 
instructor  should  remind  him  that  his  results  will  be  compared  with 
the  former  operator  of  that  project.  Some  competitive  spirit  among 
the  members  of  the  class  may  thus  be  aroused.  Next  the  work  of 
caring  for  and  managing  each  group  is  assigned  to  a  particular 
student  for  a  specified  length  of  time.  The  size  of  the  groups  will 


ft 


FIG.  47. — Dairy  students  performing  individual  exercises.     (E.  A.  Wright.) 


be  governed  by  the  number  of  animals  and  the  number  of  students 
in  the  class. 

Indoor  Laboratory  Work  in  Dairying.— Suppose  the  laboratory 
is  equipped  for  several  types  of  work,  such  as:  (1)  Separating, 
(2)  bottling,  (3)  ripening  of  cream,  (4)  making  of  butter,  (5) 
making  of  cheese.  Let  each  student  or  small  group  of  students  be 
assigned  at  different  times  to  the  above  kinds  of  laboratory  work 
(Figs.  46  and  47).  Do  not  keep  the  same  students  on  the  same 
kind  of  laboratory  work  constantly.  A  rotation  system  in  this  or 
any  type  of  work  should  be  established  by  the  instructor.  Make 
a  clear  schedule  of  the  types  of  work  and  the  students  assigned  to 
each  kind  of  work.  If  there  are  five  kinds  of  work,  make  five  groups 
of  students  and  let  them  rotaf^  each  week  or  so.  For  the  testing 


140 


HOW  TO  TEACH  DAIRYING 


of  milk  and  its  products,  students  may  work  in  unison  at  the  same 
exercise  (Figs.  48  and  49). 

In  the  laboratory  work  care  should  be  exercised  by  the  instruc- 


Fio.  48. — Practicing  the  testing  of  milk  in  the  Flathead  county  high  school,   Montana. 

(Carl  A.  Carlson.) 

tor  to  see  that  each  student  is  diligent  in  the  performance  of  prac- 
tice work  assigned  him.  His  methods  should  be  closely  scrutinized 
and  suggestions  given  frequently  for  their  improvement.  Never 


Fio.  49. — Testing  milk  from  the  home  herds  in  the  Alexandria,   Minnesota,  high  school. 

(W.  P.  Dyer.) 

let  the  student  assume  that  he  is  beyond  the  point  of  learning 
better  methods.  Neatness  and  cleanliness  are  most  important  in 
dairy  work.  Each  student  must  be  expected  to  wash  up  the  appara- 
tus and  equipment  which  he  has  used.  Each  student  should  feel 
that  he  is  to  wash  and  clean  up  more  than  his  share  if  possible. 


USING  THE  COMMUNITY  FOR  DAIRY  TEACHING       141 

The  best  methods  of  cleaning  should  be  drilled  into  the  minds  of 
all  so  that  none  of  the  equipment  will  become  filthy. 

Using  the  Community  for  Dairy  Teaching. — In  the  animal 
husbandry  side  of  dairying  the  dairy  herds  of  the  community  can 
be  used  to  good  advantage.  Classes  may  be  taken  to  dairy  barns, 
where  the  special  structure  and  equipment  may  be  studied. 

The  score  cards  issued  by  the  United  States  Dairy  Division  may 
be  used  in  scoring  dairy  barns,  dairy  equipment,  and  dairy  methods. 


Flo.  50. — Dairy  cattle  scoring  and  judging.     Give  students  enough  practice  with  young 

and  old  animals  of  both  sexes  to  make  them  exact  and  rapid  in  the  work.     (Chas.  J.  Booth, 

Calif.,  and  E.  H.  Thompson,  Okla.) 

Methods  in  dairy  feeding,  making  and  preserving  of  ensilage, 
structure  of  silos,  the  handling  of  manure,  the  culling  of  herds, 
the  methods  of  breeding,  the  methods  of  raising  calves,  and  many 
other  special  problems  may  be  studied  on  farms  of  the  community. 

In  localities  where  there  are  milk  depots,  milk  bottling  labora- 
tories, butter  factories  or  cheese  factories,  these  should  be  visited. 
The  equipment  and  methods  should  be  studied. 

Judging  of  dairy  cattle  may  be  conducted  either  by  taking  the 
students  to  farms  where  the  cattle  are  found  or  by  having  the  ani- 
mals brought  to  the  school  grounds  (Fig.  50). 

The  study  of  diseases  of  dairy  cattle  may  be  made  the  center  of 


142 


HOW  TO  TEACH  DAIRYING 


interest  for  a  number  of  dairy  trips.  The  instructor  can  usually  ob- 
tain permission  from  the  state  veterinarian  to  take  his  students  out 
to  dairy  herds  for  testing  the  animals  for  tuberculosis  (Fig.  51).  In 
states  where  such  permission  is  not  granted  local  veterinarians  who  do 
such  testing  in  the  region  are  usually  glad  to  let  the  dairy  class  parti- 
cipate in  tests  of  farm  herds.  The  students  should  understand  the 
methodsand  regulations  governing  such  tests.  Methods  of  inoculating 
to  prevent "  blackleg"  may  be  taught  in  one  of  these  ways  (Fig.  52). 
A  Dairy  Survey.1 — Early  in  the  term  the  students  and  instructor 
should  conduct  a  community  survey  relative  to  dairy  husbandry  and 


FIG.  51. — Giving  at  the  school  the  first  lesson  in  testing  cattle  for  tuberculosis. 

dairy  practices.  This  survey  may  be  made  the  basis  for  much  of  the 
community  study  and  the  class  instruction.  The  following  questions 
are  suggested  as  ones  which  may  be  included  in  the  survey  card : 

Name. 

Size  of  farm. 

Size  of  main  dairy  barn. 

Number  of  individual  stanchions. 

Number  of  cows  milked. 

Breed,  pure  or  grade. 

Kind  of  products  sold. 

Disposal  of  male  calves. 

Is  milk  tested  regularly? 

Facilities  for  storing  dairy  products. 

Facilities  for  manufacturing  products. 

Is  the  herd  considered  profitable? 


Location  from  school. 

Acres  devoted  to  dairy  pasture. 

Number  of  box  stalls. 

Other  dairy  buildings. 

Number    of     dry     stock,   including 

calves. 

Kind  and  size  of  silo,  if  any. 
Amount  per  month. 
Is  milk  weighed  regularly? 
Minimum  standards  for  culling  herd. 
Kind  of  separator,  if  any. 
Is  herd  systematically  tested? 


Special  Aids  in  Teaching  Dairying. — Charts  -  showing  contrasts 

1  See  other  survey  suggestions  in  Chapters  V,  VI,  and  VIII  to  XII. 

2  See  Chapter  XVI. 


SPECIAL  AIDS  IN  TEACHING  DAIRYING 


143 


in  each  of  the  leading  points  of  the  dairy  score  cards  are  of  great 
assistance  in  teaching  students  how  to  interpret  the  score  card. 
Rear  views,  side  views,  front  views,  and  top  views  of  both  good 
and  poor  types  of  animals  should  be  shown  on  such  charts.  Con- 
trasts of  this  kind  may  be  either  explained  on  the  chart  or  by  the 
instructor.  The  school  may  make  charts  which  may  be  illustrated 
by  cows  from  dairy  journals  and  by  photographs.  A  chart  may 
show  the  steps  in  butter  making.  Another  may  give  the  steps 
in  cheese  making.  Another  may  give  the  steps  in  ripening  cream 


Fin.  52. — Many  agriculture  instructors  teach  their  students  how  to  inoculate  to  prevent 
"blackleg."     (R.  V.  Morrison.) 

\vith  the  starter  process.  Another  may  enumerate  the  difficulties 
and  corresponding  remedies  in  operating  hand  separators.  Another 
may  give  an  outline  for  studying  hand  separators.  In  elementary 
schools,  charts  showing  the  pictures  of  the  dairy  breeds  should 
be  available. 

The  daily  instructor  and  members  of  his  class  should  collect 
pictures  of  dairying  as  it  is  practiced  in  the  community.  These 
may  be  used  for  comparative  instruction,  either  as  photographs  or 
as  lantern  slides.  Other  lantern  slides  may  be  purchased.  Most 
of  the  dairy  slides  on  the  market  are  of  an  elementary  nature  and 
are  useful  in  classes  beginning  the  subject. 

The  laboratory  should  be  supplied  with  samples  of  dairy  feeds 
of  many  kinds.  These  may  be  used  in  teaching  the  nature,  appear- 
ance and  weights  of  certain  feeds.  Many  of  these  contain  weed  seeds 


144  HOW  TO  TEACH  DAIRYING 

which  may  be  examined  by  the  use  of  a  microscope  or  by  special 
tests  in  germination. 

Teaching  Dairying  in  Rural  Schools. — Among  the  important 
lessons  in  dairying  for  use  in  elementary  rural  schools  are :  Testing 
of  milk  and  cream  for  butter  fat;  judging  of  dairy  type  of  cattle 
on  farms  near  the  school;  study  of  dairy  barns  and  other  equipment; 
the  use  of  silos;  the  changes  in  milk  due  to  bacteria  and  temper- 
ature; the  principles  of  storing  milk;  the  importance  of  cleanliness 
in  milk  production. 

Much  of  the  work  in  rural  school  dairying  may  be  based  upon 
the  home  practices  of  the  students.  They  should  be  asked  to  bring 


Fio.  53. — Students  should  show  pure-bred  animals  from  their  project  herds  at  fairs.  Young 
Guernseys.     (W.  P.  Dyer.) 

their  dairy  problems  to  the  school  for  solution.  Let  them  bring 
the  weights  of 'milk  from  each  of  the  cows  for  one  week.  Let  samples 
of  the  milk  be  taken  for' testing  at  the  school.  Arithmetic  problems 
may  be  formed  for  calculating  the  butter  fat,  the  total  production, 
and  the  probable  income  of  the  members  of  each  herd.  Farmers' 
bulletins  may  be  used  in  reading  lessons. 

These  may  concern  the  different  breeds  of  cattle,  the  various 
dairy  practices,  and  other  topics.  Spelling,  drawing,  and  compo- 
sition work  may  be  based  upon  dairy  practices  and  dairy  lessons. 

Dairying  in  Town  Grades. — In  those  sections  of  the  country 
where  dairying  is  of  great  importance  the  families  living  in  villages 
and  small  cities  will  be  much  benefited  and  interested  by  lessons 
in  school.  The  school  work  for  a  week  or  more  at  a  time  may  be 


SHORT  COURSES  IN  DAIRYING  145 

largely  centered  about  dairy  topics.  Children  may  be  taken  on 
trips  where  dairy  products  are  handled  and  the  trips  may  be  written 
up  by  students  afterwards.  The  manufacturing  side  of  the  busi- 
ness will  be  of  more  value  and  interest  to  such  children  than  the 
production  side.  Experiments  may  be  conducted  in  school  to 
show  the  composition  of  milk,  and  perhaps  the  testing  of  milk  and 
cream  for  butter  fat.  Charts  and  pictures  should  be  used  to  make 
all  the  lessons  as  clear  and  real  as  conditions  will  permit. 

Short  Courses  in  Dairying. — The  needs  of  the  community 
should  be  well  considered  when  planning  a  dairy  short  course.  If 
a  high  school,  for  example,  is  planning  to  give  a  course  for  a  week 
or  so  specially  devoted  to  dairying,  the  shortcomings  of  the  people 
in  the  community  should  \ye  taken  into  consideration  and  these 
should  be  eliminated  as  much  as  possible.  Stress  those  features 
which  the  community  needs.  Of  course  the  financial  betterment 
of  the  dairy  interests  should  be  uppermost  in  the  minds  of  those 
planning  the  course.  For  example,  if  the  butter  making  of  the 
region  is  so  poor  that  the  product  is  sold  at  a  very  low  price,  good 
butter  making  should  be  taught  at  the  school.  If  farmers  are 
milking  very  poor  cows  and  do  not  understand  methods  of  im- 
proving their  herds,  these  problems  should  find  a  place  in  the  short 
course.  If  a  neighborhood  butter  factory  will  greatly  benefit  the 
community,  and  perhaps  is  being  suggested  by  a  few  dairymen,  the 
problems  of  cooperation  in  dairying  may  be  considered  with  profit. 

Base  the  short-course  work  on  actual  experience  of  men  in  the 
dairy  work.  Have  actual  dairy  operations  in  progress  for  their 
lessons.  Have  animals  there  with  which  to  illustrate  many  of  the 
points  discussed.  Lantern  views  may  be  used  at  night  by  way  of 
entertainment  and  instruction.  Have  charts  on  the  walls  con- 
stantly before  the  short-course  students  so  that  they  will  uncon- 
sciously gain  many  lessons  which  they  might  otherwise  miss.  By 
careful  planning,  the  illustrations  and  charts  can  be  used  to  empha- 
size and  reiterate  the  teaching  given  in  laboratory  experiments  and 
demonstrations.  A  few  field  trips  to  worth-while  places  may  be 
planned  with  definite  aims  in  view.  For  example,  if  the  selection 
of  herd  sires  or  of  dairy  cattle  is  to  be  taught,  the  students  may 
go  with  the  leader  where  a  number  of  animals  may  be  used  for  com- 
paring important  features  in  the  problem  of  selection. 

Most  of  the  principles  here  stated  will  apply  as  well  to  college 
short  courses  as  to  others  in  dairying.  The  main  difference  is  in 
the  wider  range  of  territory  from  which  the  students  come.  College 
10 


146  HOW  TO  TEACH  DAIRYING 

short  courses  are  usually  longer  than  others  and  may  include  many 
more  dairy  topics. 

Discoveries  in  Dairying. — Students  in  dairy  courses  should 
always  attempt  to  discover  better  methods  of  producing  clean  milk; 
tetter  ways  of  keeping  the  cows  clean;  better  ways  of  keeping  out 
flies;  better  ways  of  preventing  sickness  among  dairy  calves; 
better  ways  of  marketing  dairy  products;  better  methods  of  feed- 
ing. They  should  discover  what  cows  are  paying  least  and  elimi- 
nate them  from  the  herd.  They  should  discover  the  best  methods 
of  maintaining  pastures.  They  should  discover  the  chief  causes  of 
loss  and  how  to  eliminate  these  causes. 

Dairy  Discussions.3 — The  skilful  teacher  can  arouse  students 
to  discuss  among  each  other  and  at  their  homes  many  topics  in 
dairying.  They  may  propound  topics  or  questions  as  if  some  great 
change  were  about  to  take  place  in  the  community  and  arouse  con- 
siderable valuable  discussion  among  the  students  and  farmers. 

Sometimes  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  certain  students  glean  from 
the  survey  cards  all  the  answers  to  some  particular  question,  as  the 
number  of  pure-bred  cows  or  the  number  of  grade  cows.  Let  the 
students  of  the  school  then  get  from  all  the  dairies  of  the  region  the 
quantity  of  milk  being  produced  daily  by  each.  These  may  be  com- 
pared on  the  basis  of  breeds.  Grades  may  be  compared  with  pure 
breds  in  production.  If  the  subject  of  individual  production  of 
cows  arouses  considerable  interest,  let  the  best  cows  of  the  neigh- 
borhood be  compared  with  each  other  from  time  to  time.  Do  not 
neglect  to  compare  also  the  poorest  cows  in  the  same  herds.  There 
is  no  easier  way  to  teach  dairying  than  to  keep  such  discussions 
constantly  going.  Students  will  teach  each  other,  and  teach  their 
parents  more  than  many  farmers'  institutes  could  teach  them. 

Dairy  Observations. — Close  observation  of  important  points 
in  dairying  should  be  taught  to  young  people.  Instructors  should 
call  for  important  observations  from  students.  This  will  show  that 
their  observations  are  important  enough  for  notice,  and  that  their 
observations  are  in  harmony  with  those  of  experienced  dairymen 
or  are  contrary  to  good  authorities.  A  fewr  such  features  of  ob- 
servation are  here  suggested:  (1)  The  influence  of  dirty  cattle  and 
dirty  barns  on  the  keeping  of  milk.  (2)  The  influence  of  breed  and 
of  individual  type  on  quantity  of  milk  and  richness  of  milk.  (3) 
The  influence  of  breed  on  the  weight  of  calves  at  birth.  (4)  The 
effect  of  silage  on  maintaining  winter  flow  of  milk.  (5)  The  effect 

3  See  topics  for  uebute,  Chapter  XI. 


THINGS  TO  SOLVE  IN   DAIRYING  147 

of  good  housing  on  the  winter  flow  of  milk.  ((>)  The  effects  of  too 
strong  or  too  weak  acid  in  the  testing  of  dairy  products.  (7)  The 
effect  of  temperature  in  the  separation  of  cream.  (8)  The  effect 
of  feeds  on  the  color  of  butter  and  cream. 

Things  to  Do  in  Dairying. — Students  should  form  grxxl  habits 
of  doing  things  right  in  their  dairy  operations.  Careful  habits  mean 
much  in  the  production  of  high-class  dairy  products.  Good  profits 
are  sure  to  come  to  those  who  form  the  best  dairy  habits  when  they 
are  learning  the  business.  I^earn  to  clean  the  cows  always  before 
milking.  Learn  to  have  clean  hands  during  the  milking  operation. 
Learn  to  wash  the  hands  before  milking  the  next  cow.  Learn  to 
milk  in  pails  with  small  mouths  to  prevent  dirt  from  falling  into  the 
milk.  Ix^arn  to  handle  milk  stools  without  getting  your  hands 
dirty.  Learn  to  handle  the  best  kinds  of  milk  strainers  and  habit- 
ually change  them  frequently.  Learn  to  have  the  air  and  floor  of  the 
barn  always  clean  at  milking  time.  Learn  all  the  ways  of  keeping 
down  flies  so  that  none  will  ever  reach  the  milk.  Learn  to  cool 
milk  by  simple  methods  to  reduce  the  multiplication  of  bacteria. 
Learn  to  put  up  ice  and  store  it  for  winter  use  if  possible.  Learn  to 
make  the  very  best  butter  and  cheese.  Learn  to  wash  dairy  uten- 
sils so  they  will  not  become  gummy.  Learn  to  use  clean  garments 
in  handling  dairy  products.  Learn  to  pack  or  otherwise  prepare  the 
most  attractive  dairy  products  for  market.  Learn  to  test  your  cows 
for  tuberculosis.  Learn  to  detect  animals  with  garget,  bloody 
milk,  and  other  affections. 

Things  to  Solve  in  Dairying.— Problems  for  solution  often  pre- 
sent themselves  to  the  student  and  to  the  dairyman.  A  few  of 
these  problems  are  here  suggested: 

1.  When  dairy  cows  fail  to  chew  their  cud,  determine  if  possible  what 
has  been  the  cause.    See  if  the  rumen  is  packed  and  determine  the  best  means 
of  relieving  the  difficulty. 

2.  When  you  know  that  your  dairy  herd  is  not  paying  enough  profit, 
find  what  course  to  pursue  in   order  to   increase  the  profits,  t.r.,to  practice 
better  feeding  or  to  get  a  better  sire  or  to  dispose  of  the  poorest  producing  cows. 

3.  If  the   heifers  of  your   herd   produce   less   than   their   mothers,  how 
can    you    reverse    the    game   and    raise    heifers    that    produce    more    than 
their  mothers? 

4.  When  you  are  losing  calves  by  premature  birth,   solve  the  cause  if 
possible  and  prevent  the  terrible  loss. 

5.  When  your  neighbors  are  getting  more  for  their  dairy  products  than 
you  are,  find  the  real  reasons  for  the  difference  and  apply  the  remedies  to 
your  business. 

(>.  When  milk  depots  are  cutting  prices  or  holding  them  below  cost  of 
production,  solve  if  possible  the  best  way  of  inducing  them  to  pay  living 
prices  to  yourself  and  other  dairymen. 


148  HOW  TO  TEACH  DAIRYING 

7.  When  dairymen  fail  to  cooperate  with  each  other,  solve  the  causes 
of  failure  and  try  to  establish  methods  of  successful  cooperation. 

8.  When  cooperative  creameries  or  cheese  factories  or  milk  depots  fail 
to  yield  satisfactory  profits  to  the  members,  try  to  find  the  causes  of  failure, 
as  careless  operators,  dishonesty  among  managers,  treachery  started  by  com- 
petitors, and  poor  business  methods. 

9.  When  separators  fail  to  give  satisfactory  results,  examine  conditions 
closely  and  solve  the  trouble  if  possible. 

10.  When  prices  of  feed  soar  upward,  try  to  solve  the  problems  of  economic 
feeding  of  cattle   by  production  of  clovers,   alfalfa,  and  other  feeds  rich 
in  protein. 

Dairy  Readings. — The  literature  of  the  dairy  world  is  rich  in 
valuable  matter.  Students  should  be  induced  to  read  reports  of 
dairy  shows,  dairy  conventions,  papers  on  special  dairy  topics, 
new  dairy  bulletins,  dairy  columns  in  agricultural  journals,  dis- 
cussions in  special  dairy  magazines.  Have  students  take  certain 
articles  home  to  be  read  to  the  family.  Have  them  read  special 
assignments  for  report  to  the  dairy  class  for  debate  in  special  exer- 
cises, for  discussions  at  farmers'  meetings,  and  for  use  in  their 
project  operations. 

Dairy  Reference  Library.5 — The  shelves  of  the  school  library 
should  be  provided  with  many  of  the  valuable  books  on  dairy 
cattle,  methods  of  feeding  dairy  stock,  and  on  the  different  phases 
of  manufacture  and  sale  of  dairy  products.  Some  of  these  relate  to 
the  organization  and  management  of  dairy  associations.  Obtain 
a  complete  up-to-date  list  of  such  books  by  writing  to  the  States 
Relations  Service  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
Select  the  best  books  from  this  list  unless  the  school  can  afford  to 
purchase  all  of  them. 

Dairy  Bulletins. — The  phases  of  dairying  are  briefly  covered 
by  special  dairy  bulletins  issued  by  the  United  States  Dairy  Divi- 
sion and  Farmers'  Bulletin  series.  Many  of  the  state  experiment 
stations  issue  good  bulletins  on  this  subject  which  should  be  ob- 
tained so  far  as  they  are  available.  Arrange  these  bulletins  for 
handy  use  as  suggested  in  another  chapter.6  Much  of  the  reference 
work  on  dairy  projects  may  be  to  these  bulletins. 

Dairy  Journals.7 — Obtain  a  complete  list  of  the  best  agricul- 
tural papers  of  the  country  that  have  good  dairy  departments,  in- 
cluding the  special  dairy  markets.  Obtain  sample  copies  of  all 
of  these  and  then  subscribe  for  the  ones  which  will  best  meet  the 
needs  of  the  school. 

6  See  Chapter  XVII  and  Appendix. 
•See  Chapter  XVI I. 

7  See  Chapter  XVII  and  Appendix. 


QUESTIONS  149 

EXERCISES 

1.  Outline  two  or  three  typical  lessons  in  dairying,  on  other  phases  than 
the  sample  given  in  this  chapter. 

2.  Make  a  long  list  of  laboratory  exercises  in  dairying,  which  would  make 
the  course  more  real  and  practical. 

3.  From  your  observation,  or  experience,  make  a  list  of  dairy  exercises 
which  could  be  conducted  in  the  community,  for  the  benefit  of  your  class. 

4.  Conduct  a  brief  dairy  survey,  of  a  small  region,  for  practice. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  dairy  pictures  which  you  would  collect  and  mount  for 
use  in  this  course. 

6.  Collect  one  set  of  these  pictures  and  mount  them. 

7.  Make  a  chart  to  teach  the  importance  of  clean  milk  production. 

8.  Make  a  score  card  for  examining  and  judging  a  cream  separator. 

9.  Another  for  a  churn. 

10.  Make  a  program  for  a  short  course  in  dairying,  working  in  as  many 
practical  exercises  and  demonstrations  as  would  be  suitable. 

11.  Make  a  list  of  ten,  or  more,  topics  for  debate  on  dairy  subjects. 

12.  Make  a  list  of  the  processes  and  methods  used,  and  give  the  steps  in 
these,  for  preparing  dairy  animals  for  shows  (Fig.  53). 

QUESTIONS 

1.  State  the  specific  aim  of  the  dairy  course. 

2.  Give  a  rather  full  list  of  the  dairy  equipment. 

3.  Give  your  ideas  of  the  kind  of  work  to  be  done  by  the  dairy  class. 

4.  Review  and  criticize  a  typical  lesson  in  dairying. 

5.  Describe  how  students  may  obtain  dairy  herd  practice:    (1)  when  the 

school  is  equipped  with  a  herd;  (2)  when  the  school  has  no  herd. 

6.  Mention  the  chief  lines  of  indoor  laboratory  work  in  dairying. 

7.  Describe  an  exercise  in  dairy  judging  with  score  cards. 

8.  Describe  exercises  to  teach  students  dairy  feeding. 

9.  Describe  a  trip  to  visit  and  study  a  milk  depot,  or  factory'. 

10.  Describe  a  trip  to  test  a  dairy  herd  for  tuberculosis. 

11.  Give  the  points  to  be  included  in  a  dairy  survey. 

12.  What  use  would  you  make  of  such  a  survey? 

13.  Give  a  list  of  local  dairy  subjects  suitable  for  lantern  slides. 

14.  How  would  you  use  a  collection  of  dairy  feeds  in  your  class? 

15.  Give  suggestions  for  teaching  dairying  in  rural  schools;  in  town  grades. 

16.  What  courses  in  agriculture  are  of  most  importance  to  the  teacher  of 

dairying? 

17.  Make  a  list  of  discoveries  to  be  made  in  dairying. 

18.  How  would  you  start  dairy  discussions  among  your  students  and  their 

families? 

19.  Make  a  list  of  dairy  observations  to  be  made. 

20.  Give  a  list  of  problems  to  be  solved  in  dairying. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
HOW  TO  TEACH  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

"The  specific  aim  of  the  work  in  poultry  is  to  enable  young  people  to  obtain 
such  a  knowledge  of  the  characteristics,  breeding,  feeding,  care,  and  manage- 
ment and  marketing  of  farm  poultry  as  will  prepare  them  for  successful  poultry 
raising." — Report  of  Committee  on  Agriculture  of  the  N.  E.  A.  Commission 
on  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education. 

The  aim  of  the  present  chapter  is  to  consider  such  special 
methods  as  will  aid  instructors  successfully  to  lead  their  students  to 
a  clear  understanding  of  the  subject  of  poultry  husbandry.  Special 
methods  are  here  suggested.  These  have  been  thoroughly  tried  by 
one  or  more  schools  where  the  subject  is  taught.  Instructors  of 
poultry  husbandry  who  are  seeking  the  best  methods  of  teaching  the 
subject  will  be  able  to  follow  many  of  the  suggestions  given,  and  to 
devise  and  adapt  them  to  suit  the  local  conditions  of  any  school. 

Special  Methods  in  Poultry  Husbandry.— This  subject  is  so 
popular  and  the  cost  of  materials  is  so  slight  that  no  school  should 
attempt  to  teach  it  without  basing  the  instruction  upon  practice 
work.  A  number  of  the  special  methods  to  be  more  fully  considered 
in  this  chapter  will  include  such  exercises  as  class  demonstrations  in 
culling  fowls,  judging  fowls  by  standards  of  perfection,  selection  of 
breeding  stock,  mating  pens,  and  examining  for  diseases  and  ene- 
mies. There  must  be  exercises  in  the  operation  of  incubators, 
brooders,  management  in  natural  incubation,  natural  breeding, 
exercises  in  caponizing,  treatment  of  diseases,  feeding,  killing, 
dressing,  and  packing.  Include  exercises  in  sorting  and  packing 
eggs,  preservation  of  eggs,  and  their  shipment  for  hatching  pur- 
poses. There  should  be  work  in  the  making  of  sprouting  trays, 
feed  hoppers,  water  fountains,  trap  nests,  broody  coops,  brooders, 
and  movable  poultry  houses.  Do  not  fail  to  include  such  exercises 
as  cleaning  and  disinfecting  of  dropping  boards,  whitewashing  and 
spraying  the  interiors  of  houses,  and  cleaning  and  disinfecting 
brooders  and  incubators. 

Content  of  Poultry  Husbandry. — In  most  vocational  high 
schools  and  other  high  schools,  the  poultry  course  should  usually 
be  made  up  largely  of  the  study  and  management  of  chickens. 
However,  in  some  instances  the  course  may  be  made  to  include  a 
study  of  other  kinds  of  poultry,  such  as  ducks  and  geese,  the  raising 
150 


CONTENT  OF  POULTRY   HUSBANDRY 


151 


of  turkeys  (Fig.  54),  the  care  and  management  of  pigeons.  Per- 
haps other  departments  of  poultry  husbandry  may  occasionally 
be  included,  particularly  if  there  are  examples  of  the  work  in  the 
community.  In  a  survey  recently  made  of  five  hundred  farms  in 
northeastern  Missouri  it  was  found  that  most  of  the  farms  in- 
cluded only  chickens  and  did  not  include  other  kinds  of  poultry. 
A  very  small  percentage  raised  turkeys  and  even  smaller  percent- 
ages raised  ducks  and  geese. 

Just  what  to  include  in  the  course  should  be  determined  by 
local  surveys  made;  through  the  students.     These  surveys  should 


Flo.   54. — The  growing  of  turkeys  may  be  a  profitable  home  project  for  either  boys  or  eirls. 

(H.  A.  Savage.) 

also  reveal  to  the  instructor  the  most  important  topics  of  the  sub- 
ject to  be  stressed  in  a  particular  neighborhood.  The  instructor 
should  then  exercise  good  judgment  in  regard  to  the  amount  of 
time  to  be  devoted  to  each  part  of  the  subject  matter  in  the  course. 
The  order  in  which  the  subject  should  be  studied  should  usually 
agree  with  the  season  of  the  year.  For  example,  if  the  course  is 
given  in  the  last  half  of  the  school  year,  some  study  should  be  made 
first  of  winter  housing  and  the  whole  question  of  types  of  houses 
can  be  considered  early  in  the  course.  This  should  be  followed  with 
lessons  in  incubation  and  brooding  as  the  season  progresses.  Suit 
the  topic  to  the  time  of  year  as  nearly  as  possible. 

If  the  course  is  to  be  offered  in  the  fall,  the  possibility  of  making 
the  topics  seasonal  is  much  more  difficult.  If  the  course  opens  in 
September,  the  study  might  well  begin  with  small  parasites,  such  as 


152 


HOW  TO  TEACH  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


lice,  mites,  and  others.  Disinfecting  of  quarters  should  be  considered 
early  in  the  course.  Culling  of  the  young  stock,  preparation  of 
winter  quarters,  breaking  the  fowls  to  habits  of  roosting  in  their 
winter  quarters,  and  the  installation  of  winter  methods  of  feeding 
will  all  come  along  rapidly  as  the  season  advances. 

It  is  readily  understood  by  the  instructor  that  the  author  of  a 
textbook  on  poultry  husbandry  would  not  be  able  to  arrange  the 
subjects  in  the  course  or  a  chapter  in  the  book  to  suit  the  season. 
It  is  therefore  necessary  that  the  instructor  use  emphatic  decision 
in  regard  to  the  choice  of  subject  matter  and  the  arrangement  of 
the  course  so  that  the  work  of  the  students  will  be  timely  and  so 
that  it  can  be  well  illustrated  by  practice  in  poultry  yards.  If  the 
poultry  textbook  should  be  followed  in  order  from  cover  to  cover, 


FIG.  5.5. — Boys  of  the  agriculture  class  in- 
specting the  home  project  of  one  of  their 
number.     Remodeling  a  hen  house  near 
Lamar,  Ark.     (M.  R.  Ensign.) 


FIG.    56. — New  York   students   of   poultry 
built  this   brooder  house   for   their  school. 


much  of  the  teaching  would  necessarily  be  abstract,  out  of  season, 
and  merely  theoretical.  Students  would  not  retain  the  lessons  and 
the  teaching  would  not  be  vocational. 

Equipment  for  Teaching  Poultry  Husbandry. — Every  school 
should,  if  possible,  own  at  least  a  small  equipment  for  the  teaching 
of  poultry  husbandry.  An  equipment  of  fowls  and  houses  is  a  val- 
uable asset  in  the  teaching  of  this  subject.  In  some  cases  it  may  be 
found  advisable  to  use  a  neighboring  flock  for  practice  and  illus- 
tration instead  of  having  a  flock  owned  by  the  school.  In  voca- 
tional schools  where  the  instructor  is  employed  for  the  entire  year 
the  school  should,  if  possible,  provide  itself  with  a  flock  of  fowls  and 
equipment  for  the  housing  and  management  of  the  same. 

The  number  of  fowls  kept  by  the  school  may  be  a  hundred  or 
less,  and  the  number  of  houses  should  be  such  as  to  group  these 
fowls  into  small  lots  of  twenty  or  so.  Each  lot  may  be  assigned  to  a 


CLASS  WORK  IN  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


153 


group  of  students  for  daily  care  and  management.  The  houses  for 
this  purpose  should  in  most  instances  be  movable,  and  may  be  used 
to  illustrate  the  movable,  or  colony  type  of  house  (Figs.  55-57). 
The  interior  equipment  of  each  house  should  be  as  complete  as 
possible,  including  sanitary  nests,  roosts  over  a  dropping  board,  a 
dry  mash  hopper,  a  water  fountain  on  an  elevated  platform,  per- 
haps a  broody  coop  in  one  corner,  receptacles  for  grit,  charcoal, 
and  dust.  There  should  be  yards  for  fencing  different  lots  of 
poultry  separate  from  each  other,  and  enough  area  to  allow  for 
some  rotation  and  movement  of  houses. 

In  some  convenient  place  there  should  be  a  room  suited  to  the 


Fio.  57. — Poultry  students  may  build  the  school  brood jr  houses.     (H.  N.  Looinis.) 

running  of  incubators  (Fig.  58),  and  several  machines  should  be 
provided  so  that  students  may  operate  these  either  singly  or  in 
groups.  Either  a  large  brooder  house  of  the  shed  type  with  several 
compartments  may  be  provided  or  there  should  be  a  number  of 
small  brooder  houses. 

In  selecting  the  poultry  equipment,  the  plan  of  the  instructor 
should  be  to  provide  for  practice  of  students,  either  in  small  groups 
or  separately,  in  all  phases  of  poultry  keeping.  If  suitable  poultry 
practice  is  thus  provided  at  the  school,  the  student  is  able  to  learn 
the  minute  details  of  poultry  husbandry  much  better  than  if  his 
practice  consists  of  home  project  work  only. 

Class  Work  in  Poultry  Husbandry. — In  the  field  of  poultry 
husbandry  large  opportunity  is  given  for  instruction  by  the  topical 
method.  Let  students  be  assigned  special  topics  to  report  to  the 


154 


HOW  TO  TEACH  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 


class.    The  assignments  should  be  definite  and  reference  to  texts, 
library  books,  and  bulletins  should  be  made. 

Let  the  daily  recitations  correspond  as  closely  as  possible  with 
the  practice  work  which  is  being  pursued.    The  class  work  should 


FIQ.   58. — Students  learninf?  to  operate  inoubators  in  the  school  basement. 
The  lower  brooder  was  made  by  a  student. 

usually  precede  the  laboratory  work.  For  example,  it  is  better  to 
study  regarding  the  operation  of  incubators  before  actually  be- 
ginning their  operation.  Study  the  mixing  of  dry  mash  before  act- 
ually mixing  it.  Study  how  to  fight  lice  before  actually  fighting 
them.  In  all  cases,  link  the  two  parts  of  the  work  as  closely  to- 


LABORATORY  WORK  IN  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY         155 

gothcr  as  possible.  There  are  many  bulletins  issued  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  by  state  experiment  sta- 
tions which  will  be  helpful  in  conducting  the  class  work.  A  single 
bulletin  may  sometimes  be  divided  among  several  students. 

There  will  be  no  lack  of  interest  in  the  class  work  in  poultry 
husbandry,  provided  the  instructor  is  careful  to  question  students 
regarding  their  difficulties  in  the  practice  work.  Methods  of  oper- 
ation should  constitute  a  large  part  of  the  class  discussion.  A  sub- 
ject so  full  of  detail  as  poultry  husbandry  will  make  the  class  work 
full  of  discussion  of  methods,  management,  and  operation.  Try- 
ing conditions  are  always  presenting  themselves  and  students 
should  be  encouraged  to  bring  their  experiences,  difficulties,  and 
problems  to  the  class  for  solution.  (Fig.  58.) 

Review  Work. — Pick  up  the  details  of  the  class  work  and 
laboratory  work  by  having  frequent  reviews.  For  the  purpose  of 
testing  the  thoroughness  of  the  preparation  of  the  students  use 
questions  at  the  close  of  different  chapters  in  some  good  textbooks. 
Many  points  which  might  otherwise  escape  the  attention  of 
students  will  thus  be  brought  out,  and  doubtless  many  errors  will 
be  prevented. 

The  topical  method  which  has  been  suggested  for  conducting  a 
recitation  in  poultry  husbandry  requires  more  attention  to  review 
work  than  in  any  other  method  of  recitation.  If  all  students  are 
required  to  pursue  the  review  questions  and  bring  up  the  "odds 
and  ends,"  the  class  work  will  be  made  more  thorough  and  stu- 
dents will  feel  that  they  are  masters  of  the  subject  matter. 

Laboratory  Work  in  Poultry  Husbandry . — Suggestions  have 
already  been  made  regarding  certain  laboratory  work  which  should 
be  done.  By  the  term  laboratory,  we  mean  in  this  case,  at  least, 
outdoor  as  well  as  indoor  work.  Several  of  the  lines  of  laboratory 
work  may  be  either  out  of  doors  or  in  the  laboratory.  Selection 
of  the  foundation  stock  may  be  conducted  either  in  the  poultry 
house  or  by  the  use  of  coops  in  the  school  building.  This  is  also 
true  of  all  such  exercises  as  the  following :  The  selection  of  breed- 
ing cockerels,  selection  of  hens  for  hatching,  judging  of  standard- 
bred  poultry  by  the  score  card,  the  operation  of  caponizing, 
preparing  dressed  poultry  for  market,  dressing  and  trussing  exer- 
cises, grading  and  packing  market  poultry,  candling  and  grading 
market  eggs,  diagnosing  poultry  diseases,  and  the  study  of  market 
types  of  live  poultry. 

There  are  a  number  of  poultry  laboratory  exercises  which  are 


156       HOW  TO  TEACH  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

best  suited  for  work  in  the  laboratory  or  other  inside  room:  The 
identification  of  feed  stuffs,  study  of  ready  mixed  rations,  study 
of  construction  and  operation  of  incubators,  study  of  construction 
and  operation  of  brooders,  the  home  preservation  of  eggs  by  water 
glass,  planning  and  use  of  poultry  records  and  accounts,  exercises  in 
preparing  poultry  for  exhibition,  studying  and  compounding  poultry 
medicines,  anatomical  study  of  the  fowl,  the  development  of  the 
chick  embryo,  and  the  study  of  the  reproduction  system  of  the  hen. 

There  are  certain  types  of  poultry  laboratory  work  which  should 
be  conducted  either  out  of  doors  or  in  some  shed  or  other  sheltered 
quarter.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  construction  of 
brooder  houses,  the  building  of  movable  poultry  houses,  making 
such  articles  of  equipment  as  hoppers,  nests,  trap  nests,  broody 
coops,  water  fountains,  hen  coops,  exhibition  crates,  shipping 
crates,  and  others. 

Such  exercises  in  sanitation  as  spraying  of  poultry  houses  for 
lice  and  mites;  whitewashing;  cleaning  of  nests  and  dropping 
boards;  the  paint  ing  of  roosts  with  oil;  treatment  of  fowls  for  scaly 
leg,  lice  and  other  troubles  will  naturally  be  performed  in  the 
places  most  convenient  for  such  work.  Students  should  have 
practice  in  all  of  them  if  possible.1 

Poultry  Trips. — The  poultry  plants  or  farm  poultry  flocks  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  school  should  be  used  by  the  class  in  poultry  hus- 
bandry. When  the  care  of  young  stock  is  up  for  consideration, 
visit  the  farms  of  good  poultry  keepers  and  study  their  methods 
in  this  regard.  Trips  to  successful  poultry  farms  should  be  made 
to  study  the  plans  of  building,  layout  of  yards,  and  methods  of 
care  and  management.  It  is  often  possible  to  ascertain  the  expenses 
and  revenues  of  good  poultry  keepers. 

It  is  well  to  make  trips  with  poultry  students  to  wholesale  and 
retail  poultry  and  egg  markets.  There  the  student  should  become 
familiar  with  methods  of  distribution  of  poultry  products.  Learn 
as  much  as  possible  about  the  commission  business,  the  retail 
business,  methods  of  packing,  conditions  in  which  products  are 
received,  and  how  they  are  shown  to  customers. 

If  possible,  visit  cold  storage  plants  where  poultry  products  are 
stored.  Learn  the  methods  of  storing  various  kinds  of  poultry 
products  and  temperatures  at  which  they  are  kept.  Also  deter- 
mine the  rates,  storage  periods,  shrinkage,  insurance,  and  cold 
storage  regulations. 

1  See  Lewis'" Poultry  Laboratory  Manual  and  Notebook." 


DETAILS  OF  THE  OUTLINE 


157 


If  there  are  poultry-packing  and  egg-packing  establishments 
within  easy  distance,  the  students  should  be  allowed  to  study  the 
methods  carefully.  This  study  should  include  such  points  as  the 
feeding  period  preceding  slaughter,  methods  of  killing,  rough  picking, 
clean  picking,  methods  of  checking,  and  prices  paid  for  this  work. 
Study  methods  of  plumping,  cooling,  grading,  packing,  and  shipping. 

Outline  for  Study  on  Poultry  Trips.2 — When  students  are 
planning  a  trip  to  inspect  neighboring  poultry  plants  for  instruc- 
tion purposes,  a  suitable  outline  for  study  should  be  made  in 
advance.  This  should  include  all  the  phases  of  study  which  the 
trip  is  intended  to  cover.  Be  sure  to  include  all  of  the  special 
methods  and  practices  which  the  instructor  may  know  are  carried 
on  at  the  poultry  plant  to  be  visited.  A  suggestive  outline  is  here 
presented.  This,  however,  should  be  modified  for  each  trip  and 
should  be  adapted  to  the  conditions  in  any  particular  locality. 
The  outline  may  be  taken  down  in  a  notebook  by  each  student,  or 
furnished  by  duplicating,  and  each  should  be  expected  to  use  it 
during  the  study  of  the  plant  visited. 

Details  of  the  Outline. — Include  the  following  points  and  any 
others  desired: 


1.  Name  of  plant. 

2.  Distance  from  shipping  point  or 

market. 

3.  Kinds  of  products  produced  for 

market. 

4.  Methods  of  selling. 

5.  Prices     received     for     different 

products. 

6.  Breed  of  poultry  kept. 

7.  Number  of  mature  stock. 

8.  Number  of  young  stock. 

9.  Methods  of  hatching. 

10.  Methods  of  brooding. 

11.  Methods  of  feeding.     Dry  mash, 

wet  mash,  scratch  feeds. 

12.  Methods  of  housing.    Number  of 

houses,  size,  amount  of  glass 
ventilation,  etc. 

13.  Is  trap  nesting  practiced? 

14.  Methods  of  culling  mature  stock. 

Young  stock. 

15.  Yarding  systems. 

16.  Litter  and  scratch  systems. 

17.  Kinds  of  fountains. 

18.  Notes  on  broiler  production. 

19.  Preparation      of      broilers      for 

market. 


20.  Notes  on  egg  production. 

21.  Preparation  of  eggs  for  market. 

22.  Notes  on  roaster  or  capon  produc- 

tion. 

23.  Preparation  of  these  for  market. 

24.  Amount  of  labor  required. 

25.  Cost  of  labor. 

26.  Labor-saving  devices. 

27.  Ease  of  watering. 

28.  Ease  of  cleaning. 

29.  Sanitary  methods. 

30.  Amount  of  loss  from  sickness  or 

death. 

31.  Are  quarantine  coops  kept? 

32.  Other    precautions    against    dis- 

ease. 

33.  Calculation  of  probable  labor  cost 

per  year. 

34.  Calculation  of  income  per  year. 

35.  Calculation     of     probable      net 

Erofits. 
at  accounts  are  kept  by  the 
owner? 

37.  General  criticisms. 

38.  Special  criticisms. 

39.  Best  points  observed. 


2  See  also  Chapter  IV. 


158  HOW  TO  TEACH  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Use  of  Poultry  Shows. — The  poultry  students  and  instructor 
should  plan  to  attend  all  good  shows  of  standard  poultry.  Perhaps 
they  will  be  able  to  participate  in  a  show  by  selecting  an  exhibi- 
tion from  their  home  stock  or  by  selecting  birds  belonging  to  the 
school  flock. 

At  the  show  they  should  become  familiar  with  the  breeds  of 
poultry  and  methods  of  staging  them.  The  work  of  judging  and 
managing  a  show  should  also  be  studied  by  such  students.  They 
should  learn  to  know  exhibitors  of  the  leading  breeds.  There  is  often 
good  opportunity  for  studying  such  exhibits  as  poultry  appliances, 
poultry  feeds,  packing,  shipping,  charts,  and  methods  of  advertising. 

Relating  the  Laboratory  Work  to  Project  Methods. — In  some 
schools  there  are  students  who  do  not  go  home  daily,  or  frequently 
enough  to  conduct  poultry  projects  at  home.  Such  students  can 
readily  be  assigned  to  projects  at  the  school.  If  there  are  a  num- 
ber of  such  students,  they  may  work  in  groups  with  small  houses  of 
laying  hens,  with  incubators,  and  Avith  flocks  of  young  chicks  in 
brooders.  If  they  are  assigned  these  tasks  as  projects  which  they 
pursue  for  profit,  they  will  be  more  willing  to  do  the  chores  regu- 
larly and  frequently  than  if  they  work  merely  as  performing  a 
laboratory  practice.  Nearly  all  of  the  care  of  the  school  flock  may 
be  thus  divided  among  students  who  are  doing  the  work  for  profit 
as  well  as  for  instruction. 

Value  of  Poultry  Surveys. — Instructors  in  poultry  husbandry, 
through  the  members  of  their  classes,  can  often  make  valuable 
poultry  surveys  of  the  region  or  regions  represented  in  the  classes. 
Such  surveys  are  of  value  to  the  students  collecting  the  information. 
Often  valuable  suggestions  are  given  them  which  will  lead  them  to 
become  more  successful  in  their  own  poultry  work.  They  will  be 
able  to  make  constructive  criticisms  of  various  methods  which  they 
see  in  use.  They  will  be  able  to  make  contrasts  between  the  good  and 
the  bad  methods  on  different  farms.  They  will  obtain  lasting 
impressions  by  actual  observations  which  they  could  not  well  gain 
in  any  other  way. 

Poultry  surveys  are  also  valuable  because  of  the  data  which  are 
collected  regarding  the  poultry  raising  in  the  neighborhood.  Such 
information  will  be  found  valuable  to  the  instructor  in  deciding 
what  points  of  instruction  should  be  stressed  in  the  class  work  and 
in  the  community  work  conducted  from  the  school.  The  informa- 
tion at  hand  will  be  valuable  in  impressing  special  lessons  in  poultry 
husbandry  from  time  to  time  throughout  the  course. 


USE  OF  TRAP  NESTS  IN  POULTRY  PRACTICE          150 

Poultry  surveys  are  also  valuable  to  the  farmers  whose  places 
are  included  in  the  survey.  The  questions  asked  in  the  survey  will 
arouse  thought  in  the  minds  of  the  fanners  themselves.  The  work 
of  answering  the  questions  will  help  the  farmers.  The  fact  that 
their  answers  are  on  file  at  the  school  will  help  them  to  think  more 
of  the  details  of  their  own  business  and  to  conduct  it  more  intelli- 
gently and  thoughtfully  than  they  might  otherwise  do.  Almost 
every  farmer  has  a  pride  in  knowing  that  his  farm  is  being  studied 
by  an  agricultural  school  or  department. 

Outline  for  a  Poultry  Survey.3 — The  following  outline  for  a 
poultry  survey  is  merely  suggestive.  It  should  be  studied  carefully 
and  modified  to  suit  the  local  conditions  and  to  suit  the  special 
objects  which  the  instructor  may  have  in  view.  It  may  be  made 
broader  in  some  ways,  and  it  may  be  more  in  detail  in  special 
particulars.  It  is  believed  that  this  outline  could  be  included  on  an 
index  card,  5x8  inches,  by  using  both  sides. 

1.  Name  and  address  of  owner.  16.  Are  feeds  purchased  or  raised? 

2.  Number  of  chickens  kept.  17.  Kinds  of  scratch  feed. 

3.  Other    kinds    of    poultry    kept.       18.  Methods  of  watering. 

Numbers  of  each.  19.  Do  you  belong  to  a  poultry  club? 

4.  Kinds    of    products    sold,    with      20.  Is  a  poultry  journal  read? 

quantity  of  each.  21.  Most      common      diseases     and 

5.  What  varieties  of  chickens,  pure  enemies. 

or  grade?  22.  Losses  from  these. 

6.  Are  artificial  incubators  used?  23.  Are  products  sold  to  consumers? 

7.  Methods  of  housing.  24.  To  dealers? 

8.  Kinds  of  houses.  25.  Through  other  agencies? 

9.  Sizes  of  houses.  26.  Is  parcel  post  used  in  marketing? 

10.  Square  feet  of  light  in  each.  27.  Other  shipping  methods. 

11.  Ventilation  system.  28.  Do    you    consider    the    business 

12.  Scratching  system.  profitable? 

13.  Yarding  system.  29.  Are  accounts  kept? 

14.  Production  of  green  feed.  30.  Remarks. 

15.  Are  dry  mash  hoppers  used? 

Use  of  Trap  Nests  in  Poultry  Practice. — When  students  are 
considering  the  matter  of  the  selection  of  breeding  stock  or  making 
studies  in  culling  of  the  laying  flock,  the  value  of  trap  nests  should 
be  demonstrated  by  actual  use.  Equip  one  or  more  of  the  small 
colony  houses  in  the  poultry  yard  with  two  or  three  trap  nests  each. 
Have  the  hens  all  numbered  with  leg  bands.  Students  who  are  in 
charge  of  each  house  should  be  cautioned  to  collect  the  eggs  fre- 
quently. The  eggs  are  to  be  marked  with  number  of  the  hen  pro- 
ducing  them. 

3  See  other  outlines  for  farm  surveys  in  Chapters  V,  VI.  VII,  IX,  X 
and  XII. 


160      HOW  TO  TEACH  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Close  connection  between  the  points  of  the  culling  score  card 
and  the  results  in  trap  nesting  should  be  shown.  Make  a  list  of  all 
the  hens  by  numbering  and  filling  a  score  card  for  each  hen  at  the 
beginning  of  the  trial.  As  the  trap  nest  record  proceeds,  compare 
the  records  of  the  hens  with  the  score  card  made  at  the  beginning. 
Some  sharp  contrasts  may  be  developed  showing  that  the  judgment 
was  not  good.  In  other  cases  the  judgment  shown  on  the  score  card 
will  be  corroborated  by  the  trap-nest  record. 

If  trap  nests  are  used  with  breeding  pens,  the  record  kept  should 
show  not  only  the  number  of  the  hens  but  also  the  cock  and  his 
strain.  The  mark  on  the  eggs  may  indicate  both  the  number  of  the 
hen  and  the  number  of  the  cock.  This  is  usually  written  in  the 
form  of  a  fraction,  thus:  291i-  With  pure-bred  stock  this  record  is 
of  great  importance  as  indicating  pedigree  of  the  egg  and  the  chick 
to  be  hatched  from  it.  If  eggs  are  to  be  sold  or  used  for  hatching 
purposes,  such  records  will  be  purchased  by  many  poultry  breeders. 

Value  of  Study  of  Trap  Nest  Work. — In  a  group  of  agricultural 
students  a  number  may  be  found  who  have  had  considerable  prac- 
tice in  modern  methods  of  poultry  feeding  and  management.  For 
such  students  new  lines  of  work  should  be  started  by  instructors  so 
that  these  students  will  have  enough  valuable  practice  to  occupy 
their  time  profitably.  In  the  following  paragraphs  are  mentioned 
several  other  lines  of  work  which  should  be  taken  up  by  such  stu- 
dents. Perhaps  the  whole  class  in  some  cases  will  find  it  profitable 
to  follow  such  advanced  lines  of  work.  While  performing  these 
special  lines  of  practice  work  they  should  be  expected  to  continue 
their  routine  of  the  daily  chores  about  the  poultry  yards  and  to 
become  skilful  by  continued  drill  in  the  correct  performance 
of  details. 

Percentages  of  Chickens  Hatched  and  Raised. — While  pur- 
suing the  daily  work  of  the  poultry  yard  and  conducting  profitable 
projects,  students  working  as  individuals  or  in  groups  should  de- 
termine the  percentages  of  eggs  hatched  by  hens  and  by  incubators. 
The  numbers  should  be  compared  at  the  same  time  of  year  and 
under  similar  conditions.  The  percentage  of  hatch  to  the  total 
number  of  eggs  set  may  be  determined,  both  with  hens  and  with 
incubators.  The  number  of  hatched  eggs  should  also  be  compared 
with  the  number  found  to  be  fertile  by  the  test  at  the  end  of 
seven  days. 

The  number  of  chicks  raised  to  the  end  of  two  weeks  or  more 
should  be  compared  with  the  number  of  chicks  hatched  by  incu- 


PRESERVING  EGGS  161 

bators  and  by  hens.    Only  the  sound  chicks  at  hatching  time  should 
be  counted. 

Students  should  be  cautioned  in  the  matter  of  drawing  con- 
clusions from  these  trials.  If  possible,  the  results  obtained  should 
be  compared  with  the  results  of  similar  trials  at  experiment  stations, 
colleges,  and  agricultural  schools.  Conclusions  are  best  when 
drawn  from  a  large  number  of  trials. 

Time  Required  for  Production  of  Fertile  or  Infertile  Eggs. — If 
it  is  thought  feasible,  trials  may  be  made  to  determine  how  much 
time  is  required  before  fertile  eggs  are  layed  by  hens  after  the  first 
mating.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  poultry  raisers  are  urged  to  pro- 
duce infertile  eggs  for  market  a  large  part  of  the  year,  the  question 
of  how  long  to  make  use  of  the  male  birds  before  the  breeding 
season  is  important. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  also  important  to  determine  how  much 
time  is  required  after  the  male  birds  are  removed  before  fertility 
ceases.  When  a  boy  or  girl  finds  no  more  use  nor  sale  for  fertile 
eggs,  say  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  how  soon  may  infertile  eggs  be 
produced  for  the  general  market? 

Closely  associated  with  these  trials,  it  would  be  well  for  stu- 
dents to  demonstrate  the  value  of  marketing  infertile  eggs.  Make 
comparisons  by  holding  lots  of  both  kinds  for  many  days.  Com- 
pare the  results.  The  conditions  for  holding  may  be  such  as  would 
correspond  closely  to  the  ways  in  which  they  are  usually  kept  in 
transit  and  in  stores. 

Rapidity  of  Growth  of  Chicks  of  Different  Breeds. — Demonstrate 
by  trials  which  breeds  are  best  for  broilers  by  weighing  a  bunch  of 
any  convenient  number  of  two  different  breeds.  Begin  the  weighing 
at  one  day  old.  Weigh  at  the  end  of  each  week  for  a  period  of  ten  or 
twelve  weeks.  Compare  a  light  breed,  as  the  Leghorns,  with  a 
general  purpose  breed,  as  the  Plymouth  Rocks,  or  with  a  heavy 
breed,  as  the  Cochins. 

In  this  trial  like  methods  of  feeding  and  management  should  be 
used  with  both  lots. 

Preserving  Eggs. — Conduct  trials  in  the  preservation  of  eggs 
in  summer  for  use  in  winter.  In  these  trials  compare  different 
methods  of  preservation.  Water  glass,  grease,  and  brine  may  be 
easily  compared.  Be  sure  to  use  sterile  eggs  for  these  trials  if  pos- 
sible. They  should  be  perfectly  clean  without  having  been  washed. 
Put  them  into  the  preserving  material  when  very  fresh,  the  same 
day  they  are  laid  if  convenient  to  do  so. 
11 


162  HOW  TO  TEACH  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Problems  in  calculating  the  profit  from  preserved  eggs  should  be 
worked  out  carefully.  The  relative  cost  of  different  methods  may 
be  compared. 

Make  a  score  card  for  judging  praserved  eggs  in  the  winter 
season.  Points  to  be  included  in  this  score  card  would  be:  Ap- 
pearance of  shell ;  change  in  weight ;  size  of  air  space  in  the  end  of 
the  egg;  freedom  of  egg  from  shell  when  opened;  proper  coloration 
of  parts;  strength  of  yolk  membrane;  consistency  of  albumen 
(natural  or  watery) ;  frothing  of  whites  when  beaten ;  absence  of 
sulfur  flavor  when  cooked  and  eaten ;  absence  of  other  bad  flavors. 

Lice  Remedies. — Let  students  make  comparisons  of  various 
methods  of  combating  lice  and  mites.  Compare  light  weight, 
amber  colored  petroleums,  such  as  the  natural  Pennsylvania  oils, 
with  sodium  fluoride  powder.  In  place  of  the  petroleum,  kerosene 
mixed  with  lard  or  vaseline  may  be  substituted.  In  these  trials 
cost,  labor,  frequency  of  application,  and  permanency  of  results  are 
to  be  compared.  Make  trials  in  nests,  on  roosts,  on  the  birds 
themselves,  with  both  young  and  old. 

Green  Feed  in  Winter. — Try  out  all  the  details  of  the  methods 
of  production  and  management  of  sprouted  oats  as  a  green  feed 
for  laying  hens  and  for  chicks  in  the  winter  season.  In  the  southern 
states  make  other  trials  with  the  growing  of  winter  greens  out  of 
doors  for  use  of  these  birds. 

Winter  succulents  from  root  crops  and  cabbage  stored  in  cellars 
should  be  compared  with  sprouted  oats  or  with  outdoor  green  crops. 

In  some  cases  it  may  be  possible  to  make  trials  with  clover 
silage,  steamed  alfalfa  hay,  and  similar  preserved  crops. 

The  comparison  in  these  trials  should  include  such  factors  as 
convenience,  costs,  palatability,  and  results  of  feeding. 

Dry  Mash  and  Wet  Mash. — With  young  chicks  or  with  laying 
hens  parallel  trials  may  be  conducted  to  compare  the  advantages 
of  feeding  with  dry  mash  or  with  wet  mash.  Consider  the  health, 
cleanliness,  amount  of  labor,  frequency  of  feeding,  growth  of 
birds,  egg  production,  and  cost. 

Poultry  Work  in  Rural  Schools. — In  the  smaller  rural  schools  it 
may  be  impossible  for  a  special  poultry  plant  to  be  maintained.  In 
this  case  most  of  the  instruction  may  need  to  be  based  upon  the 
home  projects  of  the  student  and  upon  trips  to  nearby  farms.  Ex- 
periments, demonstrations,  and  special  trials  can  be  made  on  the 
farms  of  the  neighlx)rhood.  These  can  be  performed  either  in- 
dividually by  students  or  by  the  class  and  instructor  together  when 


POULTRY  WORK  FOR  TOWN  GRADES  103 

time  will  permit.  Let  the  poultry  work  form  the  basis  for  much 
of  the-other  class  work  in  the  school.  Correlate  the  teaching  closely 
with  the  English,  reading,  spelling,  drawing,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic work. 

Poultry  Work  for  Town  Grades. — In  towns  and  cities  where 
poultry  may  be  kept  in  back  yards  and  vacant  lots,  the  subject 
may  be  made  an  important  one  in  school  for  children  of  the  grades 
below  the  high  school.  The  best  time  of  year  for  this  work  is  in  the 
early  spring  or  during  the  last  half  of  the  school  year.  The  school 
studies  in  the  subject  should  be  founded  upon  the  practice  work 
of  pupils  at  their  homes.  Each  student  should  be  expected,  if 
possible,  to  conduct  some  kind  of  poultry  project  during  the  time 
he  is  pursuing  this  subject  at  school. 

Let  the  school  work  be  well  illustrated  with  pictures,  charts,  and 
drawings  of  plans  of  building.  Have  samples  of  feeds.  There 
should  be  exercises  with  eggs  brought  to  school  for  grading,  eggs 
to  be  preserved  for  winter,  chicks  or  adult  fowls  to  be  examined 
for  mites  or  lice,  others  for  judging  and  for  teaching  methods  of 
culling,  etc.  Let  much  of  the  school  work  of  the  class  in  other  sub- 
jects be  based  upon  the  poultry  projects  of  the  members  of  the  class. 

Many  difficulties  often  arise  in  attempts  to  conduct  poultry 
projects  in  cities  and  villages.  The  danger  of  hens  scratching  up 
gardens  or  in  other  ways  vexing  neighbors  is  often  a  great  stum- 
bling block  for  those  who  wish  to  keep  poultry.  A  number  of  sug- 
gestions may  help  to  solve  this  difficulty.  Gardens  and  poultry 
can  be  made  to  harmonize  with  each  other  if  the  owners  are  willing 
to  make  them  do  so. 

1.  Laying  hens  and  young  chicks  may  be  confined  in  small  yards  much 
more  than  poultry  keepers  often  believe. 

2.  During  the  early  garden  season  when  fresh  seed  beds  are  planted,  con- 
fine the  birds  almost  constantly.    They  may  be  allowed  to  have  a  few  minutes 
run  each  evening  just  before  roosting  time.    Then  they  will  eat  grass  and  pick 
up  worms  which  their  appetites  crave  most.    They  will  seldom  stop  to  scratch 
or  dust  themselves  in  flower  beds  or  vegetable  gardens  at  that  time  of  day. 

3.  Put  brush  from  tree  trimmings  over  the  freshly  planted  seed  beds 
where  poultry  love  to  scratch.     After  the  ground  has  settled  and  the  plants 
are  large,  the  hens  will  do  less  damage. 

4.  Teach  your  neighbors  to  remember  that  hens  should  be  allowed  in  gar- 
dens before  planting  and  after  the  gardens  are  large  enough  to  be  little  injured. 
They  pick  up  many  cutworms  and  other  insects  that  might  injure  gardens. 

5.  When  crops  are  ripening,  if  they  are  attacked  by  poultry,  keep  the  birds 
confined,  at  least  fenced  away  from  such  crops.     Tomatoes  and  grapes  often 
require  protection  from  poultry  during  the  ripening  season. 

6.  A  few  eggs  or  an  occasional  broiler  given  to  a  complaining  neighbor 
often  settles  an  imaginary  difficulty. 


164  HOW  TO  TEACH  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

Short  Courses  in  Poultry  Husbandry. — Schools  and  colleges 
often  find  it  advisable  to  offer  short  courses  in  poultry  husbandry. 
These  courses  should  be  well  planned  to  suit  the  conditions  of  those 
who  are  expected  to  attend.  Courses  for  one  or  two  weeks  are 
sometimes  planned  in  counties  or  smaller  neighborhoods.  A  few 
of  the  most  important  features  of  the  business  should  be  selected 
to  be  stressed  during;  the  short  course.  These  topics  may  be  feeding 
for  the  winter  egg  production,  proper  housing  of  poultry,  enemies 
and  parasites,  and  culling  out  the  drones.  Select  such  topics 
as  are  most  important  for  the  region.  It  may  be  that  pure- 
bred poultry  and  study  of  breeds  should  be  considered  before  all 
other  things. 

All  of  the  lessons  in  such  courses  should  be  in  the  nature  of 
experiments,  demonstrations,  and  practice  work.  Theoretical 
matter  disconnected  from  these  should  be  given  no  place  in  short- 
course  instruction. 

In  college  short  courses  lasting  for  a  number  of  weeks  the  choice 
of  topics  may  be  much  greater,  but  the  principles  already  given 
should  be  followed.  Omit  theories  and  give  much  practice.  Students 
may  be  taken  to  farms  where  good  practices  are  followed.  There 
they  may  gain  many  valuable  lessons  by  observation  and  by 
learning  the  best  methods  of  successful  poultrymen. 

A  Typical  Poultry  Lesson. — Suppose  that  at  a  preceding  meet- 
ing of  the  class  the  subject  assigned  was  "Culling  the  Laying- 
Stock."  Each  member  of  the  class  may  have  been  given  special 
assignments  to  read  in  the  preparation  of  the  lesson.  These  assign- 
ments may  have  been  to  certain  bulletins  and  books  in  addition  to 
the  textbook  which  the  students  may  be  using.  Each  member  of 
the  class  was  handed  a  copy  of  a  culling  card  on  which  the  points 
for  culling  are  given  (Lewis,  "Productive  Poultry  Husbandry," 
Chapter  XXX).  Each  student  is  expected  to  go  over  the  points  of 
the  culling  while  studying  the  references  assigned  to  him. 

On  the  date  of  the  recitation,  to-day,  a  coop  of  hens  of  the  flock 
should  be  in  the  laboratory  or  recitation  room.  Each  student  is 
asked  to  take  one  bird  and  go  over  the  points  of  the  culling  card. 
One  by  one  the  students  are  called  upon  to  make  criticisms  of  the 
bird  in  hand.  If  desired,  two  students  may  be  allowed  to  work  on 
the  same  bird.  One  or  both  are  then  called  upon  to  criticize  the 
bird.  One  may  give  the  bad  points  and  the  other  the  good  points. 
Birds  may  then  be  exchanged  with  other  students  and  a  second  card 
used.  Instead  of  using  a  second  card  the  first  card  may  be  passed 


POULTRY  OBSERVATIONS  165 

to  the  second  pair  of  students  with  the  bird.  The  second  pair  then 
go  over  that  card  with  that  bird  and  decide  what  changes  they 
would  make  in  the  former  record.  Changes  are  then  called  for  by 
the  instructor.  These  are  then  discussed. 

After  this  each  student  may  handle  a  number  of  the  birds, 
particularly  those  which  have  been  pronounced  good  in  certain 
points,  and  others  that  are  bad  in  the  same  corresponding  points, 
as  the  width  between  pelvic  bones  and  distance  from  keel  bone  to 
pelvic  bones. 

Opportunity  should  be  given  to  all  students  to  learn  thoroughly 
all  of  the  important  points  in  culling  by  the  handling  of  birds  and 
discussion  of  points.  Have  important  features  repeated  and  drilled 
upon  at  the  close  of  the  recitation  period  until  the  slowest  members 
of  the  class  have  learned  them  thoroughly. 

Reading  Assignments  for  Students. — There  is  a  large  and  grow- 
ing amount  of  valuable  reading  matter  on  the  subject  of  poultry 
husbandry.  Much  of  the  old-time  matter  based  upon  theories 
which  were  without  scientific  basis  are  now  being  displaced  by  val- 
uable discussions  of  practice  founded  upon  modern  biology. 

Students  making  a  special  study  of  poultry  husbandry  in  col- 
leges, training  departments,  and  high  schools  should  be  encouraged 
to  form  habits  of  reading  such  valuable  literature  as  comes  within 
their  reach.  A  number  of  experiment  stations  are  sending  out 
valuable  bulletins  dealing  with  poultry  problems.  These  may  be 
either  assigned  to  individual  students  or  may  be  left  on  reading 
tables  where  students  most  interested  can  make  good  use  of  them. 
If  knowledge  is  gained  in  this  way  voluntarily,  it  is  as  valuable  to 
students  as  any  study  they  can  pursue. 

Things  to  Discover  in  Poultry  Husbandry. — In  this  chapter 
several  paragraphs  have  been  given  on  things  to  discover  by  trials 
in  poultry  husbandry.  There  are  always  many  points  which  stu- 
dents working  with  poultry  will  find  out  for  themselves  in  a  new 
way.  Many  of  these  points  will  really  be  discoveries  to  those 
students  although  they  may  have  been  known  by  others  before. 
Among  these  points  may  be  mentioned:  Symptoms  of  diseases, 
remedy  for  diseases,  curing  of  bad  poultry  habits,  methods  of  feed- 
ing or  other  management,  good  and  bad  features  in  marketing, 
methods  of  advertising,  mistakes  in  old  theories,  and  new  methods 
of  doing  many  things. 

Poultry  Observations. — -Teach  students  to  bring  up  in  class 
observations  which  they  have  made  with  their  poultry  flocks. 


106  HOW  TO  TEACH  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

There  are  many  points  which  require  constant  attention  of  poultry 
keepers.  Habits  in  careful  observation  on  the  part  of  beginners 
should  be  encouraged  while  they  are  studying  the  business.  A 
few  suggestions  on  these  points  are  here  given : 

(1)  How  soon  after  hatching  do  the  symptoms  of  white  diarrhoea  begin? 
(2)  At  what  age  do  chicks  show  a  desire  to  roost  on  perches  at  night?  (3)  How 
soon  after  thoroughly  oiling  of  roosts  may  mites  begin  to  appear?  (4)  What 
influence  do  nest  eggs  have  with  laying  hens?  (5)  When  do  young  stock  on 
free  range  begin  to  roost  outdoors  instead  of  indoors?  (6)  How  many  nights 
are  required  for  breaking  birds  from  roosting  out  of  doors  in  the  fall?  (7) 
What  conditions  of  the  yard  seem  to  develop  gapes?  (8)  What  relation  seems 
to  exist  between  cholera  and  wet  mash  feeding? 

Things  to  Do  in  Poultry  Husbandry. — Teach  students  well  how 
to  do  the  many  operations  in  managing  poultry  properly.  Teach 
how  to  run  incubators.  Teach  how  to  trim  lamps.  Teach  how  to 
transfer  chicks  from  incubator  to  brooder.  Teach  how  to  mix 
poultry  rations.  Teach  how  to  feed  little  chicks  without  causing 
diarrhoea.  Teach  how  to  keep  brooder  chicks  warm  without  smoth- 
ering them.  Teach  how  to  fix  the  litter  for  laying  hens  in  which  to 
supply  the  scratch  feed.  Teach  how  to  paint  roosts  and  nests  with 
oil  to  kill  mites.  Teach  how  to  spray  for  disinfecting  houses.  Teach 
how  to  caponize.  Teach  how  to  dress  broilers.  Teach  how  to  plump 
broilers.  Teach  how  to  pack  broilers.  Teach  how  to  cull  layers. 

Things  to  Solve  in  Poultry  Husbandry. — Troublesome  problems 
often  present  themselves  to  poultry  breeders.  To  solve  these  is 
often  a  puzzle.  The  attention  of  students  should  be  called  to  these 
puzzles  frequently  so  they  will  get  into  the  habit  of  solving  them 
and  gain  ability  to  do  so.  Some  of  the  poultry  puzzles  are  sug- 
gested here: 

1.  Find  the  cause  of  diarrhoea  in  little  chicks  and  stop  it. 

2.  Why  do  young  growing  stock  sometimes  refuse  to  eat  and  "go  light"? 

3.  How  can  you  best  cure  a  broody  hen  of  her  fever? 

4.  When  an  attack  of  gapes  is  discovered  should  the  poultry  premises  be 
entirely  moved  or  should  other  remedies  be  applied? 

5.  How  can  you  best  solve  the  problem  of  supplying  succulent  feed  in 
the  winter  season? 

0.  How  can  you  best  prevent  the  flock  from  in-breeding? 

7.  From  which  hens  should  eggs  be  saved  for  hatching? 

8.  How  late  should  you  continue  the  hatching  of  chicks  for  next  vear's 
flock? 

9.  What  enemies  are  devastating  the  outdoor  brooders  or  robbing  the 
roosts? 

10.  How  can  you  best  prevent  attacks  of  crows  and  hawks? 

11.  When  prices  of  feed  are  high  what  feeds  are  best  to  purchase? 

12.  When   objectionable   points  are   found  in  breeding  hens,  determine 
the  best  mating  to  solve  the  difficulty. 


EXERCISES  167 

Poultry  Reference  Books.4 — The  reference  library  should  be 
supplied  with  many  good  reference  books  on  the  subject  of  poultry 
husbandry.  A  number  of  these  are  published  and  a  rather  com- 
plete collection  should  be  obtained  if  possible.  Most  of  them  differ 
considerably  from  each  other,  and  there  will  be  little  serious  dupli- 
cation if  all  of  them  are  secured  for  reference  work  for  students. 

These  should  include  all  the  general  books  which  are  planned  for 
general  reference  or  textbook  purposes.  In  addition  to  these  add 
books  on  poultry  diseases,  history  and  descriptions  of  breeds. 
Probably  the  least  desirable  books  are  the  old-style  publications 
which  give  the  personal  experiences  of  unscientific  breeders  of 
poultry,  some  of  these  although  still  published  are  of  little  value  to 
the  modern  student  of  agriculture. 

Bulletins  on  Poultry.4 — The  farmers'  bulletin  series  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  includes  several  on  this 
subject.  The  special  poultry  bulletins  issued  by  the  Division  of 
Poultry  Husbandry  should  always  be  available  for  reference. 
Obtain  also  poultry  bulletins  from  a  number  of  the  state  experi- 
ment stations,  particularly  those  stations  which  have  strong 
poultry  departments. 

Poultry  Journals  and  Catalogues.4 — Have  on  the  reading  table 
or  reference  shelves  the  leading  poultry  journals  of  the  country. 
Secure  also  farm  journals  having  good  poultry  departments  in  each 
issue.  From  time  to  time  send  for  the  catalogues  of  dealers  in 
poultry  supplies,  such  as  incubators,  brooders,  and  other  poultry 
appliances  and  instruments.  In  the  hatching  season  obtain  cata- 
logues of  breeders  of  pure-bred  poultry.  The  addresses  of  these 
may  be  obtained  from  advertisements  in  poultry  journals. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  a  number  of  contests  to  be  entered  by  students  while 
pursuing  their  poultry  projects. 

2.  In  the  list  of  equipment  for  teaching  poultry  husbandry  select  those 
items  which  could  be  made  by  the  members  of  the  class.     Make  some  of  this 
equipment  yourself. 

3.  Make  a  long  list  of  poultry  laboratory  exercises  and  perform  some  of  these. 

4.  Conduct  a  poultry  trip  for  studying  a  modern  poultry  farm,  making 
an  outline  for  this  trip  in  advance. 

5.  Prepare  a  pen  of  white  poultry  for  show  purposes. 

6.  Conduct  a  poultry  survey  for  a  small  area;  then  revise  your  outline 
for  such  a  survey  to  be  used  in  the  future. 

7.  Practice  using  trap  nests  with  a  small  flock  of  hens. 

8.  Conduct   an   investigation   to   determine   the   percentage   of   chickens 
hatched  and  raised  in  a  certain  community. 

4  See  also  Chapter  XVII. 


168  HOW  TO  TEACH  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

9.  Make  a  study  to  determine  the  time  required  for  the  production  of 
fertile  or  infertile  eggs. 

10.  Make  a  trial  to  compare  the  rapidity  of  growth  of  chicks  of  two  breeds. 

11.  Make  a  list  of  ten  or  more  exercises  suitable  for  use  in  a  farmers' 
poultry  short  course. 

12.  Outline  several  typical  poultry  lessons. 

13.  Make  a  score  card  for  examining  and  judging  incubators. 

14.  Make  another  for  brooders. 

15.  Make  another  for  laying  houses. 

16.  Make  a  list  of  good  topics  for  debate  in  poultry  husbandry  (see  debates 
in  Chapter  XI). 

QUESTIONS 

1.  State  the  specific  aim  in  a  course  of  poultry  husbandry. 

2.  State  what  you  would  include  in  a  course  in  poultry  husbandry. 

3.  Give  a  list  of  equipment  for  teaching  poultry  husbandry. 

4.  Describe  the  class  work  in  this  course. 

5.  Tell  of  the  importance  of  review  work  in  this  subject. 

6.  Give  a  list  of  the  main  laboratory  exercises  in  this  course. 

7.  What  poultry  trips  would  be  suitable  for  the  class  in  your  region? 

8.  Why  should  there  be  a  good  outline  made  before  the  trip  is  taken? 

9.  Give  the  chief  points  to.be  included  in  this  outline. 

10.  Why  should  students  be  encouraged  to  participate  in  poultry  shows? 

11.  Why  should  the  laboratory  work  be  closely  related  to  the  project  work? 

12.  Mention  some  specific  values  in  a  poultry  survey. 

13.  Give  a  list  of  points  to  be  included  in  the  questionary. 

14.  Why  should  students  be  encouraged  to  use  trap  nests? 

15.  Why  should  students  keep  records  of  the  percentage  of  chicks  hatched 

and  raised? 

16.  What  things  will  influence  the  time  required  for  the  production  of  fertile 
or  infertile  eggs? 

17.  How  does  the  rapidity  of  growth  of  a  breed  of  chicks  influence  the  value 

of  that  breed  for  broiler  purposes? 

18.  Give  the  points  in  a  score  card  for  judging  preserved  eggs? 

19.  What  values  would  you  place  on  these  points? 

20.  Why  should  students  select  the  simplest  and  best  remedies  for  lice  and 

mites? 

21.  Give  a  reason  for  studying  the  production  of  green  feed  in  winter. 

22.  Describe  a  trial  for  comparing  wet  and  dry  mashes. 

23.  Give  suggestions  for  conducting  the  poultry  work  for  rural  schools;  for 

town  grades. 

24.  Why  should  teachers  of  poultry  husbandry  be  trained  in  all  the  poultry 

laboratory  work? 

25.  Mention  twelve  good  exercises  to  be  performed  before  a  farmers'  poultry 

short  course. 

26.  Outline  and  criticize  a  typical  poultry  lesson. 

27.  Give  an  example  of  good  reading  assignments  in  this  subject. 

28.  Give  a  list  of  discoveries  to  be  made  in  this  subject. 

29.  What  poultry  observations  should  you  encourage  students  to  make? 

30.  Give  a  list  of  important  things  to  do  while  teaching  poultry  husbandry. 

31.  Give  a  list  of  things  to  solve  in  this  subject. 


CHAPTER  IX 
HOW  TO  TEACH  HORTICULTURE 

"The  specific  aim  of  the  work  in  horticulture  is  to  enable  young  people  to 
obtain  such  a  knowledge  of  the  characteristics,  propagation,  culture,  improve- 
ment, harvesting,  storage,  marketing,  and  use  of  the  principal  local  vegetable 
and  fruit  crops  as  will  prepare  them  for  success  in  vegetable  and  fruit  raising." 
— Report  of  Committee  on  Agriculture  of  the  N.  E.  A.  Commission  on  Reorgan- 
ization of  Secondary  Education. 

THE  subject  of  horticulture  as  here  considered  includes  the 
study  of  orchard  fruits,  small  fruits,  vegetables,  flowers,  and  orna- 


Fio.  59. — Teach  students  to  make  root  grafts  as  a  winter  laboratory  exercise.      (J.   A. 

Cederstrom.) 

mental  plants.  In  many  schools  this  subject  is  taken  up  as  a 
one-year  course  or  as  a  half-year  course.  This  is  particularly 
true  in  high  schools.  In  junior  high  schools  having  only  two  years 
of  agricultural  work  the  subject  of  horticulture  is  usually  a  part  of 
the  one  year  of  plant  life. 

Content  of  the  Course  in  Horticulture. — This  will  necessarily 
vary  somewhat  in  different  schools  according  to  the  importance  of 
horticultural  products  in  the  particular  section  of  country.  In 
practically  all  sections  of  all  states  there  should  be  considerable  in- 
terest in  nearly  all  of  the  divisions  of  horticulture.  Some  plant 
propagation  by  means  of  grafting  (Fig.  59),  budding,  layering, 
division  of  roots,  and  by  seeds  should  be  given  in  the  course. 

Probably  most  of  the  vegetable  gardening  should  be  taught  from 

169 


170 


HOW  TO  TEACH  HORTICULTURE 


the  standpoint  of  home  gardening  (Fig.  60)  rather  than  com- 
mercial gardening.  This,  however,  will  vary  in  different  sections. 
If  there  be  a  good  market  for  garden  products  near  by,  students 
should  be  taught  to  grow  products  for  this  market.  In  this  case 
the  number  of  kinds  of  vegetables  may  be  more  restricted  than 


FIG.  GO. — -Two  good   kinds   of   projects  in  gardening,   beans  and  early  potatoes.      (R.   A. 


projects  in  gardening,    bean 
Mooney,  New  Hampshire.) 

when  the  general  home  garden  is  the  main  object.  Whether  to 
include  in  the  vegetable  garden  the  extensive  growing  of  Irish 
potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  and  corn  is  somewhat  doubtful.  If 
students  have  conducted  projects  with  these  in  a  course  in  field 
crops,  they  may  be  omitted  from  the  vegetable  garden  work. 

The  orchard  work  should  include  all  of  the  fruits  which  have 
been  or  could  be  well  grown  in  the  climate  and  soils  of  that  region. 
If  the  soil  be  too  light,  apples  and  some  types  of  plums  may  be 


ATTITUDE  OF  CLASS  TOWARDS  TOPICS  SELECTED     171 

omitted,  but  other  types  of  plums  and  peaches  should  be  stressed. 
If  the  region  is  suited  to  apples,  pears,  and  cherries,  more  stress  may 
be  given  to  them  than  to  peaches.  The  choice  between  sour  cher- 
ries and  sweet  cherries  should  be  largely  decided  by  the  conditions 
of  soil  and  climate;. 

In  choosing  what  small  fruits  to  include  in  the  course  we  should 
again  decide  which  ones  are  well  adapted  to  the  region.  In  north- 
ern states  all  of  the  bush  fruits  should  be  included.  Strawberries 
and  grapes  can  be  grown  in  nearly  all  sections  of  the  country.  In 
the  southern  states  Muscadine  grapes  may  be  added  to  the  vine- 
yard besides  the  bunch  grapes.  The  bush  fruits,  except  currants 
and  gooseberries,  are  well  adapted  to  the  southern  states. 

Nuts  are  usually  better  adapted  to  the  South  than  to  the  North, 
though  black  walnut  and  some  other  nut  culture  may  be  studied  in 
northern  states  if  the  local  interests  warrant  it. 

The  study  of  the  home  wood  lot  should  be  taken  up  in  this 
course  and  may  include  nut  culture.  In  the  North  sugar  produc- 
tion should  be  an  element  in  the  study  of  home  wood  lots,  while  in 
the  South  the  growth  of  English  walnuts,  pecans,  and  other  nuts 
may  be  considered  in  connection  with  the  home  wood  lot. 

Beautifying  home  grounds  is  an  important  phase  of  the  study 
of  horticulture  in  almost  all  parts  of  America.  What  to  plant  and 
how  to  plant  for  the  beautification  of  home  grounds,  school  grounds, 
highways,  and  all  public  places  should  be  considered  here — trees, 
shrubs,  vines,  flowers,  and  lawn  grasses. 

Limitations  of  the  Course. — The  amount  of  matter  to  be  in- 
cluded under  the  subject  of  horticulture  in  any  school  should  be 
governed  largely  by  the  amount  of  time  which  the  student  may 
devote  to  the  subject. 

If  only  a  half  of  the  school  year  is  devoted  to  the  whole  subject 
of  horticulture,  a  number  of  the  vegetables  which  are  rare  or  least 
suited  to  the  region  should  be  omitted.  The  time  devoted  to 
plant  propagation  should  be  rather  restricted  and  should  be  directed 
towards  those  lines  which  would  be  most  practical  for  the  members 
of  the  class.  If  the  subject  of  seed  testing  has  been  considered  in 
connection  with  field  crops  or  other  plant  husbandry  work — e.g., 
in  botany,  it  may  be  omitted  from  this  course.  Even  the  work  in 
orchard  fruits  may  be  chiefly  directed  towards  one  or  two  kinds, 
for  example,  peaches  and  apples  or  plums  and  peaches.  The  work 
in  small  fruits  may  even  be  confined  if  necessary  to  strawberries, 
one  of  the  bush  fruits,  and  grapes. 

Attitude  of  the  Class  Towards  Topics  Selected. — The  members 


172  HOW  TO  TEACH  HORTICULTURE 

of  the  class  should  feel  that  the  topics  which  are  selected  for  study 
in  this  course  are  ones  which  will  give  the  greatest  returns  in  their 
projects  while  attending  school  and  afterwards.  The  time  devoted 
to  the  subject  of  horticulture  in  any  school  is  usually  too  brief  to 
include  everything  which  might  properly  be  called  horticulture. 
The  growth  of  cranberries,  for  example,  may  be  made  interesting 
to  any  class  anywhere,  but  it  will  be  far  more  interesting  to  the 
class  in  some  region  where  cranberries  should  be  grown  and  can 
be  grown  with  much  profit. 

A  good  guide  in  determining  the  interest  and  importance  of 
different  phases  of  horticulture  is  to  select  first,  if  possible,  the  proj- 
ects which  the  members  of  the  class  are  to  pursue.  These  should 
be  studied  and  made  the  chief  center  of  thought  by  all  the  members 
of  the  class.  Local  surveys  may  be  quickly  made  even  if  they  are 
not  intensive  at  first.  These  will  indicate  what  horticultural  sub- 
jects are  of  most  local  importance,  and  what  should  be  stressed 
with  the  members  of  the  class.  Arrange  all  these  topics  to  suit  to 
the  season  of  the  year  so  far  as  possible. 

Methods  in  Horticulture. — This  is  not  an  abstract  subject  and 
should  never  be  taught  as  such.  There  are  so  many  materials  and 
things  to  be  handled  and  used  that  some  of  these  should  always  be 
at  hand  for  study  by  the  class  either  during  the  recitation  or  labo- 
ratory work. 

Practicums,  exercises,  field  trips,  study  of  markets,  and  other 
practical  phases  should  always  be  uppermost  in  the  mind  of  the 
instructor.  The  study  of  subject  matter  itself  should  always  be 
based  upon  these  other  phases  of  work.  Horticulture  lends  itself 
better  to  the  practical  phases  of  teaching  than  does  almost  any 
other  division  of  agriculture.  Pruning,  spraying,  thinning,  propa- 
gating, transplanting,  cultivating,  fertilizing,  harvesting,  packing, 
storing,  and  marketing  all  come  so  rapidly  before  the  live  instructor 
of  the  subject  that  he  will  really  dislike  to  give  abstract  lessons  to 
his  classes. 

Equipment  for  Teaching  Plant  Propagation. — There  should  be 
in  any  school  laboratory  a  few  simple  things  for  teaching  grafting 
(Fig.  59),  budding,  and  propagating  by  other  methods.  If  the  school 
doas  not  own  its  own  grafting  knives  and  budding  knives,  members 
of  the  class  may  be  expected  to  supply  themselves  with  these. 

There  should  be  in  the  laboratory  or  somewhere  about  the 
school  a  suitable  place  for  storing  boxes  of  apple  seedling  roots, 
scions,  and  other  fresh  materials.  These  should  be  so  kept  as  to  be 


EQUIPMENT  FOR  TEACHING  PLANT  PROPAGATION     173 

in  a  cool,  moist  condition  for  a  number  of  weeks  and  be  ready  for 
use  during  the  winter  when  needed.  Sawdust  or  sand  for  packing 
is  necessary. 

There  should  be  shallow  boxes  about  \}/2  by  2  feet  over  the 
top  and  four  inches  deep  for  use  in  starting  hardwood  and  softwood 
cuttings,  sprouting  seeds,  and  transplanting  seedlings.  These 
trays  or  "flats"  may  be  made  by  the  students.  Plants  for  produc- 
ing these  cuttings  may  be  grown  in  the  windows  of  the  laboratory 
or  may  be  obtained  when  desired  from  the  homes  of  students  or 
neighbors.  Hardwood  cuttings  may  be  taken  from  shrubs  or  from 
plants  out  of  doors  during  the  fall  or  early  winter  and  stored  in  such 
places  as  have  been  mentioned,  where  they  may  be  left  to  callous. 
Students  should,  of  course,  make  these  cuttings  for  practice  work. 

A  laboratory  where  horticulture  is  to  be  taught  should  be 
supplied  with  many  samples  of  spraying  materials.  These  should 
include  the  ingredients  of  Bordeaux  mixture  and  kerosene  emulsion, 
soluble  oils,  lime-sulfur,  nicotine  sulfate,  and  all  poison  sprays, 
such  as  Paris  green,  arsenate  of  lead,  and  iron  sulfate.  Add  to 
this  list  all  patent  preparations  that  may  be  found  on  the  market 
which  seem  practical  for  use.  Have  several  forms  of  spraying 
apparatus,  including  a  bucket  sprayer,  a  knapsack  sprayer,  a 
barrel  sprayer,  and  one  or  more  small  hand  sprayers.  If  larger 
spraying  apparatus  is  needed,  it  is,  of  course,  not  to  be  kept  in  the 
main  laboratory. 

Pruning  tools  should  be  ready  for  use  in  the  laboratory.  These 
will  include  hand  shears,  double-handle  shears  of  several  kinds; 
long  extension  pruners  of  one  or  two  lengths  may  be  necessary. 
Pruning  saws  and  heavy  dehorners  should  be  shown  and  be  ready 
for  use.  Utensils  and  materials  for  making  grafting  waxes,  for 
waxing  grafting  cotton,  materials  for  painting  tree  wounds,  etc., 
should  be  available  in  the  laboratory.  In  making  wax  heat  is 
necessary,  and  a  burner  used  in  other  agricultural  exercises  may 
serve  the  purpose. 

In  the  teaching  of  horticulture  it  is  advisable  to  teach  the 
mixing  and  application  of  fertilizers  for  both  general  and  special 
purposes.  Fertilizing  materials  for  illustration  and  for  mixing 
should  be  at  hand  in  the  laboratory.  These  may  be  kept  in  boxes 
or  special  bins  made  for  the  purpose.  Samples  may  be  kept  in 
large  jars,  where  they  may  be  easily  examined  and  used  in  such 
experiments  as  testing  their  solubility. 

Samples  of  orchard  soils  of  various  kinds,  particularly  from 


174  HOW  TO  TEACH  HORTICULTURE 

those  regions  where  the  students  live,  may  be  kept  in  bins  or  soil 
cans.  These  soils  may  be  used  in  the  propagation  work  in  the 
trays  already  mentioned.  Sharp  sand  should  be  available  for  use 
in  flats  when  cuttings  are  to  be  rooted  and  for  use  in  other  exercises. 

The  laboratory  should  be  provided  with  insect  specimens  and 
with  examples  of  their  work  on  trees,  shrubs  and  other  plants; 
specimens  showing  the  injury  from  diseases  should  also  be  available. 
Examples  of  good  and  bad  pruning  may  be  mounted  on  cards  for 
quick  reference  when  needed  in  the  classroom. 

Outdoor  Equipment  for  Teaching  Horticulture. — On  the  school 
grounds,  if  possible,  it  is  well  to  have  ornamental  plantings  of 
shrubs  of  many  kinds,  and  vines  which  climb  on  trellises,  on  wood, 
and  on  masonry  surfaces.  It  is  best  to  have  perennial  vines  as 
well  as  annuals.  There  should  be  grass  lawns  where  the  care  of 
lawns  may  be  taught. 

A  small  orchard,  including  a  few  of  each  of  the  kinds  of  fruits 
suited  to  the  region,  should  be  grown  on  the  land  laboratory  of  the 
school.  If  this  is  impossible  let  a  young  orchard  be  started  on  a 
neighboring  farm  with  the  privilege  of  study  and  work  by  the 
school.  It  is  well,  if  possible,  to  have  orchard  trees  of  different  ages 
for  student  practice.  These  will  offer  different  problems  in  prun- 
ing, spraying,  fighting  borers,  etc. 

A  young  or  an  old  vineyard,  or  both,  should  be  either  on  the 
school  land  or  near  by,  for  practice  work.  This  vineyard  need  not 
be  large,  but  the  size  may  be  suited  to  the  available  land  and  to 
the  number  of  students  likely  to  be  pursuing  the  work. 

Bush  fruits  of  the  types  suitable  for  the  region  may  be  grown 
either  on  the  school  land  or  on  the  neighboring  farm.  Not  many 
of  these  are  needed,  but  a  few  blackberries,  raspberries,  and  per- 
haps currants  and  gooseberries  should  be  handy  for  the  teaching 
of  horticulture.  Have  also,  at  least,  a  small  patch  of  strawberries  to 
teach  methods  in  controlling  the  runners,  propagating  the  plants, 
mulching,  cultivating,  fertilizing,  etc. 

A  School  Garden.1 — A  part  of  the  land  laboratory  should  be 
devoted  to  a  school  garden.  The  size  of  this  may  be  governed  by 
the  method  to  be  followed  in  conducting  it.  If  each  member  of  the 
class  is  to  be  assigned  a  definite  area,  a  certain  number  of  rows  for 
his  individual  care,  the  area  may  be  much  larger  than  if  only  a 
cooperative  garden  is  to  be  managed.  If  the  area  will  permit,  the, 
individual  management  with  a  few  rows  is  much  better  than  the 

1  See  also  Chapter  XIV. 


HOTBEDS  AND  COLDFRAMES  175 

cooperative  plan.  Conducting  the  vegetable  garden  exercises  on 
neighboring  farms  is  usually  not  satisfactory.  Of  course,  students 
may  pursue  their  home  projects  in  vegetable  gardening.  But  there 
are  so  many  lessons  which  should  be  taught  in  the  garden  itself 
with  the  whole  class  present  that  a  small  piece  of  land,  planted  with 
garden  crops,  should  be  near  by  and  entirely  under  the  control  of 
the  class.  If  home  projects  are  conducted  by  individual  members 
of  the  class,  the  area  devoted  to  the  school  garden  may  be 
very  small. 

Garden  Tools  and  Implements. — A  suitable  place  for  keeping 
the  necessary  number  of  rakes,  hoes,  spading  forks,  markers, 
twine  winders,  lines,  planters,  and  cultivators  should  be  either 
attached  to  the  school  building  itself  or  should  be  erected  as  a 
separate  small  building.  Sometimes  the  basement  of  the  school 
building  itself  may  be  used;  a  large  empty  room  or  closet  may 
serve  the  purpose. 

All  the  tools  should  be  numbered.  These  numbers  may  be 
burned  on  the  handles,  stamped  with  a  steel  die  on  the  metal  parts, 
or  the  numbers  may  be  painted  on  the  tools.  Have  racks  and 
holders  suitable  for  keeping  the  tools  in  order.  The  places  may  be 
numbered  to  correspond  with  the  tools  kept  in  them.  Order  in 
their  arrangement  and  storage  should  be  taught  to  all  students 
for  the  sake  of  their  future  habits. 

Storage  places  for  seeds  may  be  arranged  in  the  same  room  where 
the  tools  are  kept,  provided,  of  course,  that  mice  and  weevils  are 
excluded  by  the  containers.  This  room  should  also  contain  hand 
sprinklers,  garden  hose,  and  other  watering  apparatus.  The  room 
also  serves  as  a  suitable  place  for  keeping  drainage  tools,  samples 
of  drainage  tile,  flats  for  propagation  of  plants  and  growing  of 
seedlings,  and  other  special  garden  and  orchard  apparatus. 

Hotbeds  and  Coldframes. — In  some  secluded  spot  protected 
from  the  north  and  west  winds  by  some  building,  hedge,  or  row  of 
evergreens,  the  students  may  be  taught  to  build  hotbeds  and  cold- 
frames  (Fig.  01).  The  framing  materials  may  be  so  put  together 
each  season  that  they  may  be  easily  knocked  down  for  storage  until 
another  year;  thus  each  class  will  have  practice  in  the  details  of  con- 
struction of  the  frames.  Glass  sashes  must  be  provided,  of  suitable 
size  to  cover  the  frames.  The  sashes  and  framing  materials  may  l>e 
stored  from  one  season  to  another  in  the  garden  house  where  the 
tools  are  kept. 

Deep  pits  constructed  of  wood  or  concrete  are  of  great  value  in 


176 


HOW  TO  TEACH  HORTICULTURE 


keeping  over  winter  plants  which  will  be  suitable  in  the  laboratory 
during  the  winter.  Bedding  plants  and  stocks  for  producing  house 
plants  and  flower  beds  may  be  often  kept  over  winter  in  deep 
flower  pits. 

Some  dry  cellar  space,  either  at  the  school  or  the  instructor's 
home  or  perhaps  at  the  home  of  some  neighbor  or  student,  should  be 
used  for  the  storage  of  roots  of  cannas,  caladiums,  dahlias,  and 
other  bulbs  which  are  taken  up  in  the  fall.  Garden  and  orchard 
products  may  also  be  stored  in  such  a  root  cellar. 

A  School  Greenhouse. — Very  few  instructors  teaching  agri- 
culture below  college  rank  are  provided  with  a  special  greenhouse 
for  horticultural  teaching  (see  Chapter  XV).  A  few  high  schools 


Fio.  61. — Group  work  in  making  hotbeds  and  coldframes.    The  equipment  of  the  school  is 
improved  and  the  students  gain  valuable  experience.     (A.  A.  Pryor.) 

may  find  it  possible  to  erect  small  greenhouses ;  but  when  funds  are 
limited  the  expense  of  providing  and  maintaining  such  a  structure 
should  be  avoided.  Most  colleges  teaching  agriculture  conduct 
greenhouse  work.  They  have  students  that  expect  to  follow  some 
special  line  of  horticulture  involving  the  extensive  use  of  glass. 
Where  vegetables  are  extensively  grown  in  the  winter  under  glass, 
and  where  special  crops  of  flowers  are  grown  for  market,  instruction 
in  greenhouse  work  is  important. 

Class  Work  in  Horticulture. — Old-fashioned  lecture  methods 
of  teaching,  in  which  the  students  are  expected  to  take  down  the 
thoughts  of  the  instructor,  are  not  well  suited  to  the  subject  of 
horticulture.  Lesson  assignments  may  be  made  in  advance  and  a 
study  period  should  be  used  by  the  student.  There  are  many  books 
and  bulletins  on  horticultural  topics  which  should  be  used  in  mak- 
ing references  for  looking  up  topical  assignments. 

This  subject  lends  itself  well  to  the  topical  method  of  conduct- 


CLASS  WORK  IN  HORTICULTURE 


177 


ing  the  class  work.  A  lesson  in  horticulture  may  easily  be  divided 
into  a  number  of  small  topics.  These  topics  may  be  assigned  to 
individual  students  to  be  carefully  prepared  during  the  regular 
study  period  and  reported  to  the  class  at  the  next  regular  time. 
A  topic  is  sometimes  assigned  to  more  than  one  student;  but  dif- 
ferent references  are  then  given  to  each,  so  that  the  thought  of 
different  authors  may  be  presented  at  recitation  time.  Each  stu- 
dent appreciates  that  he  is  pursuing  a  different  line  of  thought  from 


Fio.  62. — Let  students  learn  the  limits  of  spray  outfits  that  may  be  too  small  for  home 
orchard  work.    (S.  It.  S.,  U.  S.  D.  A.) 

the  rest,  and  will  do  the  work  with  much  more  interest  and  recite 
with  a  better  spirit  than  if  all  the  topics  are  assigned  to  all  the  class. 

During  the  study  period  the  references  given  at  the  time  of  the 
assignment  may  be  supplemented  if  necessary  by  the  instructor  in 
charge  of  the  study-room  at  the  time.  Students  should  take  such 
notes  during  their  study  as  will  enable  them  to  present  to  the  class 
the  matter  which  they  have  read. 

During  the  recitation  the  students  are  called  upon  in  the  order 
which  will  most  clearly  and  practically  develop  the  whole  lesson  in 
the  mind  of  the  members  of  the  class.  By  practical  order  here  is 
meant  the  order  of  procedure  as  it  would  be  followed  in  conducting 
the  work  in  a  project  at  home.  Each  student  should  be  trained  in  so 
12 


178 


HOW  TO  TEACH  HORTICULTURE 


clearly  presenting  his  topic  that  all  the  members  of  the  class  will 
get  the  important  thoughts  on  that  topic.  He  should  then  be  asked 
to  impress  on  the  class  the  points  which  should  be  stressed  or  which 
are  most  important  for  them  to  remember  in  their  work.  If  two 
students  have  the  same  topic,  the  second  should  be  asked  to  empha- 
size or  to  supplement  the  first  report.  If,  for  example,  the  first 
student  has  reported  upon  the  purposes  or  methods  of  a  winter  mulch 
for  a  strawberry  bed,  the  second  student,  to  whom  was  assigned  the 
same  topic,  may  be  asked  to  review  the  purposes  or  methods  and  the 
materials  used.  He  may  be  asked  also  to  give  any  additional 


FIQ.  63. — Student  spraying  orchard  for  codling  moth  for  the  second  time,  two  weeks  after 
blossoms  are  gone.     Teach  the  use  of  suitable  equipment.     (VV.  V.  Longley,   Minn.) 

thoughts  which  his  authors  have  mentioned.  Members  of  the  class 
listening  to  the  reports  on  special  topics  should  be  taught  to 
take  in  outline  form  such  memoranda  as  will  be  helpful  to  them 
in  their  work. 

An  Example  of  the  Topical  Method  in  Horticulture. — Suppose 
the  next  lesson  is  to  be  on  the  subject  of  enemies  of  the  apple  or- 
chard and  how  to  control  them.  Suitable  topics  for  the  assignment 
to  individual  students  may  be:  (1)  The  life  and  damage  of  the 
codling  moth;  (2)  methods  and  reasons  for  the  methods  of  con- 
trolling codling  moths;  (3)  life  history  and  damage  of  canker  worms; 
(4)  control  of  canker  worms;  (5)  life  history  and  damage  of  apple- 
tree  borers;  (6)  the  protection  of  trees  from  borers,  removal  of 
borers,  and  description  of  borers;  (7)  life  and  damage  of  the  apple 
aphis,  including  all  forms;  (8)  methods  of  controlling  all  forms  of 
apple  aphis;  (9)  life,  damage,  and  methods  of  control  of  tent  cater- 


THE  RECITATION 


179 


pillars;  (10)  secure  sample  of  apple  scab,  descril>e  its  life,  and  give 
remedies;  (11)  twig  blight;  (12)  bitter  rot;  (13)  frog  eye;  (14) 
apple  rust  and  cedar  apple;  (15)  canker  and  sun  scald. 

References  on  each  of  these  subjects  should  be  so  extensive  that 
the  student  will  really  do  some  valuable  reading  and  study  on  his 
own  topic,  as  treatment  in  the  general  text  on  horticulture  is  far  too 
brief  for  a  student  who  is  conducting  an  apple  project  for  profit. 
He  must  delve  deeply  into  his  topic  and  l>e  ready  to  report  the  best 
of  it  to  the  class.  The  references  on  these  topics  should  be  to  bulle- 


Fia.  64. 


Fio.  65. 


FIG.  64. — A  hotbed  project  at  home  may  bring  a  good  income  from  the  sale  of  plants  such 

as  tomatoes,  cabbage,  cauliflower,  or  peppers.     (A.  W.  Hand,  N.  .1.) 

FIG.  (i.5. — The  profit  from  a  large  tomato  project  is  often  very  great.  The  crop  may  bo 
marketed  or  canned.  This  student  saved  hand  labor  by  cultivating  the  rows  both  ways. 

(A.  W.  Hand.) 

tins,  books  on  insects  and  diseases,  and  perhaps  to  special  books  on 
the  apple.  Each  student  should  be  instructed  to  examine  speci- 
mens which  show  damage  due  to  these  enemies,  and  to  examine 
collections  which  show  insects  in  various  forms,  if  possible.  Have 
them  bring  pictures  and  specimens  to  the  class  to  illustrate  their 
reports.  Those  who  report  on  methods  of  control  should  also  select 
the  materials  wrhich  will  add  interest  to  their  reports. 

The  Recitation. — In  arranging  the  foregoing  topics  the  order 
suggested  in  the  assignment  may  be  followed.  However,  the  im- 
portance of  the  enemies  in  a  region  should  be  considered,  and  the 
most  important  should  be  taken  up  first.  The  most  injurious 
insects  and  their  control  may  be  followed  by  the  most  injurious  dis- 
eases and  their  control.  It  would  be  well  to  follow  this  lesson  with 


180 


HOW  TO  TEACH  HORTICULTURE 


a  series  of  such  topics  as  methods  of  spraying,  apparatus  to  be  used, 
and  time  of  application.    This  whole  matter  may  be  then  summed 


Fio.  6fi. — The  first  lesson  in   pruning  may  be  given  in  a  yard  near  the  school.    This  can 
teach  the  methods  of  cutting  and  the  use  of  several  kinds  of  tools.    (E.  R.  Thompson,  Okla.) 


Fi<;.  fi7. — Give  students  practice  in  pruning  peach  trees  in  a  regular  orchard.     Here  they 

should  work  somewhat  independently — only  one  or  two  on  one  tree.     This  will  develop  the 

principles  in  the  mind  of  each.     (H.  R.  Xaylor,  Okla.) 

up  in  the  spray  calendar  which  each  student  may  be  expected  to , 
make  and  on  which  all  should  be  thoroughly  drilled.  Skill  in  quiz- 
zing all  of  the  students  on  many  points  may  be  exercised  by  the 


EXERCISE  PRECEDING  GARDEN  PROJECTS 


181 


instructor.  The  same  results  may  he  reached  by  questioning  them 
from  various  points  of  view.  For  example,  students  may  he  asked 
what  insects  arc  controlled  by  certain  insecticides.  Or  what  insec- 
ticides should  be  used  for  the  control  of  certain  enemies.  Or 
what  enemies  are  controlled  by  spraying  at  certain  times — the 
dormant  spray,  the  spray  after  petals  fall,  or  the  spray  two  weeks 
later,  etc. 

A  Blackboard  Exercise  Preceding  Garden  Projects.— Suppose 
the  assignment  made  was  that  each  member  of  the  class  is  to  draw 
a  plan  for  his  home  vegetable  garden,  including  all  the  kinds 


Fia.  08. 


Fio.  69. 


Fio.  OS. — The  primer  of  a  young  tree  must  actually  plan  its  future  «hape  and   work  in  har- 
mony with  nature's  laws.      (H.  I.  Schnabcl,  Calif.) 

Fio.  69. — When  students  are  pruning  an  orchard  let  each  work  on  one  tree  and  not  work 
in  large  groups  on  the  same  tree.     Compare  Fig.  7.     (R.  M.  Vifquain,  Iowa.) 

grown  in  it  last  year.  All  are  to  look  up  these  points:  (1)  area, 
(2)  shape,  (3)  direction  of  rows,  (4)  reasons  for  long  rows,  (5) 
advantages  of  using  a  horse  in  tillage  between  rows,  (6)  list  of 
vegetables  for  home  garden,  (7)  what  varieties  of  each  to  grow, 
(8)  quantity  of  each  for  their  homes,  (9)  best  dates  for  planting 
these,  (10)  what  ones  to  be  planted  several  times  and  why. 

At  recitation  time  let  a  number  of  the  best  plans  be  placed  on 
the  board.  While  this  is  being  done  have  lists  of  the  kinds  and 
varieties  written  on  the  board,  with  quantities  to  be  grown. 
While  students  are  at  the  board  have  others  tell  what  vegetables 
are  hardy  against  spring  frosts  and  what  ones  are  not.  Have  some 
tell  what  dates  these  should  be  planted,  and  how  often  and  how  long 
between  plantings  of  the  repeaters.  After  all  plans  and  lists  are 


182 


HOW  TO  TEACH  HORTICULTURE 


on  the  board  have  them  judged   by  members  of  the  class — the 
plans  first.    Consider  size,  direction  of  rows,  length  of  rows,  min- 


Fio.   70. — The  school  may  often  find  grapes  to  prune  in  back  yards  near  by.   1  hey  should 

be  taught  the   proper   pruning   for   vines   on    an   arbor,  as  well   as  for  fruit   in  a  vineyard. 

(K.  R.  Thompson,  Okla.) 


Flo.   71. — Grapes  on  a  wire  trellia  in  a  regular  vineyard  give  students  better  practice  in 
pruning.     It  is  like  their  home  project  work  in  many  respects.     (G.  It.  Ransom,  Okla.) 

imuni  amount  of  hand  work,  amount  of  horse  work.  Let  students 
who  did  not  go  to  the  board  discuss  these  plans,  point  by  point. 
Let  others  discuss  the  lists  of  vegetables,  quantities,  and  best 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES  AND  PRACTICE  WORK         183 

varieties.  Let  new  kinds  which  were  not  included  be  considered,  as 
Swiss  chard  or  New  Zealand  spinach.  Have  students  repeat  the 
important  points  in  the  plans,  as  to  using  a  horse  for  the  garden 
work.  A  little  time  may  be  given  to  consider  the  saving  in  growing 
home  gardens. 

Laboratory  Work. — Much  of  the  time  of  the  classes  studying 
horticulture  can  be  used,  particularly  during  the  winter,  in  practice; 
work  and  in  performing  laboratory  exercises.  This  kind  of  work 
should  have  as  its  object  the  teaching  of  how  to  do  things  as  well 
as  the  teaching  of  lessons  in  real  subject  matter. 

Do  not  let  any  time  be  spent  in  the  laboratory  merely  for  the 
sake  of  consuming  winter  hours  of  the  students.  Let  all  the  exer- 
cises have  clear,  accurate,  and  definite  aims.  The  instructor  should 
know  positively  what  to  expect  from  his  pupils  as  the  result  of  each 
laboratory  assignment.  Select  such  exercises  as  will  be  of  real  value 
to  the  students  that  are  performing  them. 

The  keeping  of  notebooks  on  laboratory  work  should  be  simple 
and  brief  and  not  voluminous.  The  exercises  may  be  numbered. 
The  report  or  notes  on  each  exercise  should  be  on  a  page  distinct 
from  the  rest.  Do  not  allow  pupils  to  fall  into  careless  methods  in 
keeping  their  notes,  nor  in  the  performance  of  their  exercises.  At 
first  the  instructor  should  work  with  the  students  enough  to  teach 
them  good  methods;  how  to  handle  apparatus;  how  to  clean  up  and 
put  away  materials  used ;  how  to  clean  up  the  tables ;  and  how  to 
take  notes.  Teach  students  to  be  systematic  and  methodical;  teach 
them  to  be  observing,  particularly  in  natural  processes.  As  far 
as  possible  they  should  learn  to  be  independent  of  each  other.  If 
certain  students  show  an  inclination  to  "lean  on"  other  students 
for  their  notes  and  results,  give  them  special  caution  frequently. 
Remove  temptation  from  their  surroundings. 

Laboratory  Exercises  and  Practice  Work  in  Fruit  Growing. — (1)  Store 
apple  roots  intended  for  stocks  for  winter  grafting. 

(2)  Winter  primings  from  the  apple  orchard  may  he  brought  to  the  lab- 
oratory  and  there  cut  into  suitable  lengths  for  use  as  scions,  selecting  only 
the  new  wood.    Store  these  in  wet  sawdust  in  a  cool  place. 

(3)  Labeling  should  be  taught.     Let  each  of  the  kinds  of  the  scions  be 
properly  labeled,  using  painted  wooden  labels.    Each  kind  must  be  tied  sepa- 
rately and  labels  should  be  securely  fastened. 

(4)  With  rosin,  paraffin,  and  tallow  make  up  a  batch  of  grafting  wax,  and 
let  each  student  pull  some  of  it  as  he  would  taffy  candy,  greasing  the  fingers 
to  prevent  sticking.     It  is  important  to  keep  the  temperature  just  right  to 
prevent  it  from  becoming  unmanageable. 

(5)  Take  one  or  more  balls  of  No.  18  knitting  cotton  and  wind  it  into 
skeins  over  a  book  about  eight   inches   long.    Cut  both  ends  of  the  skeins 


184  HOW  TO  TEACH  HORTICULTURE 

and  tie  the  strands  at  the  middle  and  then  dip  these  into  melted  grafting  wax. 
This  waxed  cotton  may  be  laid  on  oiled  paper  ready  for  use  in  grafting  and 
budding  exercises. 

(6)  With  apple  scions  and  apple  root  stocks  let  all  the  students  practice 
making  many  root  grafts.    These  should  be  counted  and  labeled  and  stored 
away  to  callous.     Let  each  student  become  proficient.    He  should  show  the 
grafts  to  the  instructor  before  they  are  wrapped  as  well  as  afterwards.    The 
tongue  graft  should  be  an  inch  or  more  in  length. 

(7)  Students  should  practice  budding  on  willows  or  other  twigs  that  have 
been  kept  in  water  jars  in  a  warm  room  until  the  bark  is  loose.    Budding  of 
this  kind  is  for  drill  only  and  the  product  may  be  discarded. 

(8)  Students  should  perform  exercises  in  the  making  of  Bordeaux  mixture. 

(9)  Learn  to  test  Bordeaux  mixture  by  the  yellow  prussiate  of  potash 
method;  also  by  the  knife-blade  method;  also  by  the  plate-exposure  method. 

(10)  Have  lime,  sulfur,  and  the  vessel  for  boiling  these  and  prepare  a 
large  batch  of  lime-sulfur  to  be  kept  as  stock  solution. 

(11)  Students   should   be  taught    to    test    liquid    lime-sulfur  with   the 
Baum6  scale.     They  should  then  dilute  a  small  amount  of  the  solution  for 
winter  spraying. 

(12)  Try  dissolving  poison  materials  in  Bordeaux  mixture  and  in  lime- 
sulfur  solution,  using  separately  Paris  green,  dry  arsenate  of  lead,  and  the 
paste  form  of  arsenate  of  lead. 

(13)  Make  up  a  small  amount  of  the  stock  solution  of  ammoniacal  car- 
bonate of  copper.    Then  dilute  this  for  the  summer  strength. 

(14)  An  exercise  may  be  tried  in  the  making  of  miscible  oil.     Dilute 
this  or  some  that  has  been  prepared  before  with  the  right  amount  of  water  for 
winter  spraying. 

(15)  Indoor  exercises  in  pruning  may  be  planned  by  digging  a  number  of 
young  trees,  bringing  them  to  the  laboratory  for  this  work. 

(16)  Make  an  apple-sorting  table  with  a  wood  frame  and  sloping  top. 
Over  this  is  tacked  burlap  bagging.     It  should  be  depressed  enough  to  hold 
one  or  two  bushels  of  apples  at  a  time. 

(17)  Have  apples  brought  to  the  laboratory  for  sorting,grading,and  packing. 

(18)  After  the  apples  have  been  graded  and  sorted  carefully  each  student 
should  have  practice  in  wrapping  with  paper  and  packing  in  standard  apple 
boxes.     The  different  styles  of  packs  should  be  learned  by  each  student  by 
packing  apples  of  different  sizes  in  different  boxes. 

(19)  Learn  to  pack  barrels  of  apples.     Skill  in  facing  may  be  made  a 
matter  of    competition   between   students.     Practice   heading   barrels  until 
students  are  skilful. 

(20)  Students  may  be  given  good  practice  in  sharpening  pruning  tools, 
grafting  and  budding  knives,  and  tillage  implements. 

(21)  Study  the  different  types  of  spraying  apparatus  (Figs.  62  and  63). 
Let  each  sprayer  be  dissected  and  repack  the  parts  if  needed.    Let  any  neces- 
sary adjustment  be  made  and  the  parts  be  reassembled  for  use. 

(22)  Study  nozzles  of  different  types.    Their  effects  may  be  tested  in  the 
laboratory  with  one  or  more  of  the  sprayers. 

(23)  Students  should  become  familiar,  by  careful  examination,  with  the 
different  kinds  of  scale  insects  and  other  orchard  pests. 

(24)  Study   specimens  of  diseases,  as  black  rot.  club  root,   crown  gall, 
canker,  sun  scald,  twig  blight,  brown  rot  of  stone  fruits,  scab  on  apples,  apple 
rust,  cedar  apple,  frog  eye,  and  others. 

(2.5)  Exercises  in  the  making  up  of  fruit  packages  for  berries,  apples, 
peaches,  etc.,  may  he  conducted  in  the  laboratory  during  the  winter. 

(26)  Study  of  varieties  of  fruits  should  he  practiced  until  all  students 
know  the  distinctive  character  of  the  leading  varieties. 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES  IN  GARDENING  185 

(27)  Fruit  descriptions  should  be  made,  using  standard  outlines  and  forms 
made  for  that  purpose. 

(28)  Practice  using  score  cards  for  fruit  exhibits. 

Laboratory  Exercises  in  Gardening. — Winter  is  a  good  time  for 
practicing  a  number  of  exercises  in  the  laboratory  before  the  season 
opens  enough  to  start  outdoor  work.  Some  of  these  exercises  may 
be  in  flower  pits,  in  hotbeds,  in  coldframes,  and  in  storage  cellars. 

(1)  Let  each  student  make  a  suitable  plan  for  an  ideal  home  garden 
having  in  mind  his  own  place  for  the  garden.    These  plans  should  be  discussed 
with  reference  to  soil,  exposure,  suitability  to  different  garden  crops,  fences, 
need  of  fertilizer,  lime,  and  other  points. 

(2)  Make  flats  for  use  in  hotbeds  later.     Box  lumber  may  be  used  for 
this  purpose. 

(3)  Plan  an  exercise  in  the  study  of  garden  seeds  of  all  kinds. 

(4)  Test  garden  seeds  until  students  are  familiar  with  different  methods. 

(5)  Study  garden  fertilizers,  forms  of  lime,  and  practice  mixing  fertilizers. 

(6)  Try  experiments  with  different  types  of  garden  soils.     Percolation 
and  capillarity  may  be  tried  with  soils  varying  in  their  amounts  of  sand  and 
amounts  of  humus. 

(7)  Try  solubility  exercises  with  different  kinds  of  fertilizers. 

(8)  With  soils  in  the  flats  have  students  plant  seeds  of  the  vegetables 
which  require  transplanting.    This  should  be  done  at  the  proper  season.     In- 
clude early  cabbage,  tomatoes,  cauliflower,  peppers,  eggplant,  head  lettuce,  etc. 

(9)  Construct  frames  for  hotbeds  and  coldframes. 

(10)  Learn  to  reglaze  and  putty  sashes  to  be  used  on  hotbeds  and  cold- 
frames. 

(11)  Make  sieves,  using  wire  netting  of  different  meshes.    These  are  use- 
ful in  sifting  soils  for  seed-bed  flats  and  pots. 

(12)  Exercises  in  the  making,  painting  and  numbering  of  garden  stakes  and 
large  and  small  labels  may  be  conducted  when  these  materials  are  needed. 

(13)  Students  should  make  twine  winders  and  dibbers. 

(14)  Simple  markers  for  hand  use  in  the  garden  should  be  made  in  the 
winter  laboratory. 

(15)  Let  students  make  soft-wood  cuttings  from  house  plants  such  as 
geraniums,  fuchsias,  carnations,  etc.     These  may  be  started  to  root  in  flats 
of  sharp  sand  in  the  windows. 

(16)  Practice  in  making  several  types  of  bird  houses  will  impress  the  lesson 
of  the  importance  of  such  things. 

(17)  Potting  exercises  may  be  conducted  on  potting  tables  having  strips 
around  the  sides  to  hold  soils.     Try  potting  cuttings  that  have  formed  roots 
in  trays;  tomatoes  or  other  seedlings  may  be  transferred  to  pots.    Plants  should 
be  moved  from  small  pots  to  large  ones.    Give  practice  in  that  kind  of  work 
when  needed. 

(18)  Students  should  be  taught  to  cure  by  drying,  brining,  canning  in 
tins  and  canning  in  glass. 

(19)  Store  garden  products  for  winter.     Practice  in  curing,  along  with 
methods  of  storing,  is  advisable. 

(20)  In  winter  visit  store  houses  and  study  the  products  stored  there. 
Exercises  in  the  amount  of  skrinkage  of  different  products  may  be  conducted. 

(21)  Study  specimens  of  diseases  such  as  nematodes  on  carrots,  scab  on 
Irish  potatoes,  rot  on  sweet  potatoes,  etc. 

(22)  Practice  the  use  of  the  score  card  in  scoring  and  judging  exhibits 
of  Irish  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  and  other  winter  forms  of  garden  products. 


186  HOW  TO  TEACH  HORTICULTURE 

Outdoor  Garden  Exercises. — (1)  Excavate  for  hotbed  frames,  install  the 
frames,  manure  the  soil,  and  cover  with  glass  (Fig.  (>4). 

(2)  Install  coldf rames  and  cover  with  cloth  or  glass. 

(3)  Planting  the  seeds  or  transplanting  the  plants  to  hotbeds  or  cold- 
frames  should  be  performed  by  all  students  until  they  are  skilful. 

(4)  Construct  or  repair  garden  fences,  paint  posts,  and  use  whitewash 
on  fences  where  desired. 

(5)  Stake  the  corners  of  the  garden  and  stake  off  the  "lands"  for  plowing. 
Plan  for  the  back  furrow  or  bcdding-up  method  of  plowing. 

(6)  Learn  to  lay  off  garden  rows  and  stake  them  for  future  planting. 

(7)  Practice   the   ventilating,   controlling   temperature,  and  watering  of 
hotbeds,  coldframes,  and  flower  pits. 

(8)  In  early  spring  practice  raking  lawns,  manuring  and  reseeding  spots 
where  the  sod  is  weak,  repairing  terraces,  and  correcting  drainage. 

(9)  Give  drills  in  pruning  shrubbery,  planting  and  transplanting  shrubs 
where  needed. 

(10)  Repair  and  build  walls,  roads  and  curbings,  and  other  edgings. 

(11)  Erect  an  overhead  irrigation  system  or  install  other  forms  of  gar- 
den irrigation. 

(12)  Practice  making  a  good  seedbed  with  a  hand  rake  in  the  open  garden. 

(13)  Under  the  instructor's  guidance  line  off,  plant,  cover,  and  firm  soil. 

(14)  Give  practice  in  transplanting  plants  to  the  open  garden  when  con- 
ditions are  favorable.     This  should  include  mulching  about  the  plants  with 
a  rake. 

(15)  Later  there  should  be  exercises  in  thinning  of  garden  rows,  cultiva- 
tion with  hand  cultivator,  identification  and  pulling  of  weeds,  etc. 

(16)  Make  stakes  and  practice  using  them  for  supports  of  tomatoes,  egg- 
plants and  others. 

(17)  Practice  combating  enemies  with  spraying  methods,  dusting  methods, 
and  hand  picking.    Pruning  and  removing  of  suckers  and  dead  parts  in  the 
garden  should  be  practiced. 

(18)  Have  exercises  showing  the  best  cultural  methods  for  each  of  the 
crops  grown  at  the  school  (Fig.  65). 

(19)  Instructors  should  give  definite  ideas  followed  by  practice  in  the 
judging  of  maturity  of  garden  crops. 

(20)  Practice    harvesting,    washing,    bunching    or    otherwise    preparing 
garden  products  for  market. 

(21)  The  instructor  should  teach  students  how  to  sell  products;  the  best 
methods  of  marketing  should  be  included.    Let  students  practice  until  perfect, 
using  the  best  methods.     In  the  fall  repeat  the  exercises  in  drying,  brining, 
canning  or  otherwise  preserving  garden  products  for  future  use. 

Outdoor  Exercises  in  the  Orchard  and  Fruit  Garden. — (1)  Pruning  both 
young  and  old  trees  should  be  practiced  enough  to  make  all  students  skilful. 
Include  as  manv  kinds  of  trees  as  you  have  available  (Figs.  66,  67,  68  and  69). 

(2)  Prune  bush  fruits,  including  all  that  arc  grown  in  the  region.     This 
should  be  accompanied  by  examination  of  fruit  buds  and  the  location  of  the 
future  crop. 

(3)  Practice  pruning  both  young  and  old  grape  vines.     This  may  be 
made  to  include  vines  which  are  to  be  supported  according  to  various  systems 
of  trellising  (Figs.  70  and  71). 

(4)  Make  cuttings  from  grape  primings,  from  bush  fruit  primings,  and 
scions  from  orchard  primings  for  use  in  propagation  of  these  plants. 

(5)  Examine  trees,  shrubs,  and  vines  for  their  natural  enemies,  such  as 
scale  insects,  diseases,  etc.     Good  specimens  of  all  such  materials  should  be 
saved  for  future  use  of  classes. 

(6)  Practice  spraying  with  miscible  oil,  lime-sulfur  or  other  winter  ma- 


TRIPS  TO  NEIGHBORING  ORCHARDS  187 

terials.    Use,  if  possible,  several  tyi>es  of  apparatus,  such  as  a  bucket  sprayer, 
knapsack  sprayer,  barrel  sprayer,  and  jx'rhaps  others. 

(7)  Remove   borers   from   peaches,   apples,    pears,  plums,  and    cherries. 
This  should  be  practiced  until  students  are  familiar  with  all  details. 

(8)  Let  students  secure  apple  seeds  from  cider  mills.     Prepare  them  for 
planting  and  plant  a  row  or  more  in  the  garden  for  future  use  in  grafting 
or  budding. 

(9)  Secure  plum  pits,  peach  pits,  and  perhaps  cherry  pits  for  the  growing 
of  stocks.    Stratify  these  in  the  fall  for  winter  freezing. 

(10)  Plant  pits  of  the  stone  fruits  that  have  lx>en  stratified  over  the  winter 
for  growing  of  the  stocks  in  rows  in  the  garden. 

(11)  In  June  practice  budding  the  stocks  of  stone  fruits  and  of  apple 
.seedling  stocks.    Use  dormant  buds  from  scions  which  have  been  held  in  storage 
in  a  cellar  in  wet  sawdust. 

(12)  In  September  give  similar  budding  practice,  using  buds  from  scions 
of  the  current  season's  growth.    In  this  and  in  the  preceding  exercise  contests 
in  skill  and  speed  may  be  conducted. 

(13)  Let  students  have  practice  in  propagating  plants  by  tip  layering, 
mound  layering,  and  vine  layering. 

(14)  Exercises  in  the  division  of  roots  can  best  be  taught  when  plants 
are  being  transplanted  in  the  fall  or  spring.    Use  red  raspberries,  blackberries, 
currants,  gooseberries,  or  any  that  are  available. 

(15)  Students  should  have  practice  in  all  details  of  the  care  and  manage- 
ment of  a  strawberry  patch  at  the  school.     These  exercises  should  include 
propagation  and  setting,  control  of  runners,  fighting  enemies,  judging  maturity 
of  fruits  for  different  purposes,  harvesting,  sorting,  and  marketing. 

(16)  Let  students  have  practice  in  judging  maturity  of  crops  of  all  fruits. 
Consider  the  use  to  be  made  of  the  crop  in  each  case — whether  to  be  shipped, 
sold  locally,  used  at  home,  or  preserved  for  winter. 

(17)  An  exercise  in  trellising  and  tying  up  grape  vines  is  necessary  in 
teaching  these  methods. 

(18)  Practice  the  sorting  and  packing  of  fruits  of  all  kinds.    Use  various 
forms  of  packs,  suiting  each  to  the  kind  of  market. 

(19)  The  winter  storage  of  apples  includes  lessons  which  should  be  taught 
by  practice. 

Trips  to  Neighboring  Orchards. — Students  should  be  given 
considerable  drill  and  practice  in  orchards  of  the  neighborhood 
(Figs.  72  and  73).  There  are  also  many  lessons  to  be  studied  re- 
garding methods  of  operation  and  management  by  owners.  In 
planning  an  orchard-study  trip  let  as  many  of  the  details  as  pos- 
sible be  worked  out  in  advance.  Have  some  definite  purposes  in 
view  in  going  to  the  orchard.  For  example,  if  the  owner  of  the 
orchard  is  to  be  spraying,  the  instructor  of  the  class  may  arrange 
with  him  to  let  the  class  have  a  demonstration  lesson  in  spraying. 
Perhaps  the  school  equipment  may  be  used  in  the  work.  The  owner 
of  the  orchard  should,  of  course,  pay  for  the  spray  materials  used. 
Probably  the  farmer  would  supply  the  team  also  if  needed. 

In  planning  the  trip  make  an  outline  of  the  points  to  be  studied 
en  route,  before  the  spraying  begins  at  the  orchard,  during  the 
spraying  operation,  and  after  the  spraying. 


188 


HOW  TO  TEACH  HORTICULTURE 


Some  of  the  points  to  be  studied  are  the  following:  (1)  Suitable 
season  for  spraying  for  the  purposes  in  view.  (2)  Amount  of  mate- 
rial required  for  the  orchard  to  be  sprayed.  (3)  Cost  of  material. 
(4)  Best  apparatus  to  use.  (5)  Type  of  nozzle  best  for  the  purpose. 
(6)  Conditions  of  wind  and  sunshine  favorable  for  spraying.  (7) 
Combinations  of  material  to  be  used  for  the  insects  and  diseases  of 
the  orchard  at  this  time.  (8)  Examine  the  orchard  for  evidences  of 
insect  pests  and  diseases.  (9)  Evidences  that  the  orchard  has  been 
properly  pruned  and  sprayed  previously.  (10)  Evidences  of  the 
forthcoming  fruit  crop.  (11)  Proper  distribution  of  spray  material. 
(12)  Thoroughness  of  spraying.  (13)  Criticisms  of  the  spraying. 


Fio.  73. 


Young  people  are  apt  to  for 

Have  some  one  state  the  main  principles  to  be  remembered  while  they 


len  set  to.  pruning   an  old,  badly- 


FIG.   72 
neglected  orchard 

are  at  work.    (G.  R    Ransom,  Okla.) 

FIG.  73. — Do  not  allow  such  severe  "  dehorning"  unless  the  tree  is  greatly  devitalized.     Com- 
pare with  the  same  trees  before  pruning  in  Fig.  72. 


(14)  How  soon  can  results  be  positively  determined?  (15)  What 
suggestions  can  you  give  to  the  owner  for  better  results  in  the 
future?  (16)  What  further  spraying  will  you  recommend  for 
this  season? 

The  class  should  make  a  study  of  the  owner's  orchard  project 
so  far  as  possible  on  this  trip.  Determine  his  methods  of  fertilizing, 
cultivating,  and  pruning.  His  whole  system  of  management  in 
picking,  packing,  sorting,  and  storing  may  come  in  for  study  if  time 
will  permit. 

Other  Orchard  Trips. — A  number  of  orchards  in  the  neighbor- 
hood may  be  visited,  but  each  time  a  definite  lesson  and  perhaps 
a  new  one  should  be  planned.  The  main  purpose  of  a  trip  may  be 


TRIPS  TO  HOME  GARDENS 


189 


for  practice  in  pruning  of  cither  young  or  old  trees.  Much  time 
should  not  be  consumed  by  repeating  the  same  kind  of  lesson  often, 
but  each  student  should  get  sufficient  practice  in  one  or  two  trips 
to  fix  well  one  particular  lesson  or  method  in  his  mind. 

Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  and  arsenate  of  lead  after  the 
peaches  have  formed,  for  the  purpose  of  fighting  curculio  and 
brown  rot  (Fig.  63).  may  be  a  lesson  distinct  from  winter  spraying 
with  lime-sulfur  (Figs.  74  and  75). 

Perhaps  an  orchard  trip  may  be  taken  at  picking  time,  and  then 
varieties,  ripeness,  management  of  pickers,  picking  utensils,  pack- 
ing methods,  and  marketing  may  be  objects  of  study  (Fig.  76). 


FIG.  74. — Winter  spraying  of  apple  trees  for  San  Jos£  scale  and  fungous  diseases;   home 
project  work,  Virginia.     (J.  B.  Holler.) 

Trips  to  Small  Fruit  Gardens. — Valuable  lessons  can  be  learned 
by  studying  farmers'  projects  in  growing  raspberries,  blackberries, 
or  other  bush  fruits.  Special  strawberry  growers  may  also  be  visited. 
If  there  are  commercial  vineyards  in  the  region,  trips  should  be 
made  to  study  the  projects  in  grape  growing.  On  a  strawberry 
trip,  for  example,  let  students  take  note  of  the  suitability  of  the 
crop  to  the  soil;  methods  of  propagation  of  plants;  time  and 
method  of  setting  plants;  methods  of  controlling  runners;  cultiva- 
tion; materials  and  methods  of  mulching;  harvesting;  marketing; 
varieties  grown;  cost  of  each  of  these  operations;  prices  received 
for  fruits;  use  of  by-products,  and  chief  enemies. 

Trips  to  Home  Gardens. — One  to  two  trips  to  well-planned 
home  gardens  may  be  made  at  different  seasons  of  the  year — one 
perhaps  in  late  spring  after  the  garden  is  well  up,  and  another  in 


100 


HOW  TO  TEACH  HORTICULTURE 


1 


Fio.  75. — Spraying  with  lime-sulfur  all  day  in  the  winter,  by  boys,  is  possible  only  when  there 

ij  hope  for  a  good  profit  from  the  project.     Spraying  would  be  easier  and  more  thorough  if 

the  pruning  were  done  first.     (A.  W.  Hand.) 


Fio.  71). — Students  should  study  in  the  orchard  with  the  instructor  such  things  as  winter 
killing,  frost  injury,  bud  and  fruit  development,  variety  differences,  needs  for  cultivation 
and  fertilizing,  and  need  for  summer  pruning.  (C.  H.  Hanson,  Minn.,  and  S.  R.  S.,  U.  S.  D.  A.) 


QUESTIONS  FOR  AN  ORCHARD  SURVEY  191 

the  fall  before  many  of  the  crops  have  been  harvested  for  winter. 
During  spring  trips  the  points  to  be  studied  are:  Size  of  the  garden 
with  reference  to  the  number  of  people  in  the  household;  variety 
of  vegetables  grown;  plan  for  succession  of  crops;  examples  of  com- 
panion cropping;  plan  of  the  garden  with  reference  to  cultivation 
and  management;  location  of  perennials,  long-season  annuals,  and 
short-season  annuals;  plans  for  trellising,  staking,  pruning,  spray- 
ing, and  fertilizing. 

The  fall  trip  should  consider,  in  addition  to  some  of  the  above 
points,  such  things  as  storage,  cleaning  up  garden,  fall  plow- 
ing, winter  cover  crops,  fall  garden  crops,  and  results  of  the 
year's  garden. 

Trips  to  Market  Gardens. — In  regions  where  it  is  possible  to 
find  truck  growers  or  market  gardeners,  suitable  trips  should  be 
planned  to  study  their  special  crops,  their  methods  of  growing  the 
crops,  their  utilization  of  garden  areas,  systems  of  irrigation,  if  used, 
methods  of  harvesting  and  marketing,  prices  received,  yield  of 
crops,  maintenance  of  fertility  of  soils,  composting  of  manure, 
transportation  problems,  etc. 

Trips  to  Study  Landscape  Gardening. — It  is  important,  when 
taking  trips  to  orchards,  gardens,  and  other  places,  to  study  the  prob- 
lems of  landscape  gardening  along  public  highways,  along  private 
places,  and  in  parks  if  possible.  Much  value  can  be  gained  by 
utilizing  in  this  way  the  time  in  traveling  during  all  agricultural 
or  horticultural  trips. 

Different  types  of  landscape  gardening  may  be  located  and 
special  trips  taken  to  them  if  time  \vill  allow.  If  so,  drawings  and 
notes  should  be  taken  and  trips  should  be  made  as  valuable  as 
possible.  Places  that  are  improperly  planned  might  be  replanned 
with  profit. 

An  Orchard  Survey. — Early  in  the  study  of  orcharding,  or 
before  it  actually  begins,  the  class  and  the  instructor  should  to- 
gether make  a  survey  of  the  orchard  interests  of  the  region.  This 
may  serve  as  a  basis  for  planning  the  educational  campaigns  for  the 
class  studies,  for  the  field  trips,  for  practice  work,  etc. 

Questions  for  an  Orchard  Survey.2 — Let  questions  be  clear  and 
direct.  They  should  be  so  formed  as  to  let  the  answers  be  brief 
and  easy.  If  the  questions  are  on  two  sides  of  the  card,  it  need  not 
be  large.  These  may  be  kept  for  future  study,  for  tabulation,  and 

2  See  topics  for  farm  surveys  in  Chapters  V  to  VIII,  and  X  to  XII. 


192  HOW  TO  TEACH  HORTICULTURE 

for  summarizing  in  any  way  desired.    The  chief  points  to  be  in- 
cluded are  here  given: 

Name.  Address. 

Kind  and  number  of  trees.  Ages  of  trees. 

General  conditions.  Clean  tillage  or  sod. 

Intercropping.  High  heading  or  low  heading. 

Pruning  close  or  slight.  Character  of  soil. 

Slope  of  land.  Cover  crops. 

Green  manure.  Commercial  fertilizers. 

Barnyard  manure.  Chief  orchard  pests. 

Remedies  used.  Largest  yields  and  when. 

Methods  of  harvesting.  Losses  from  pests  not  controlled. 

Uses  of  main  crop.  Uses  of  by-products. 

Methods  of  storing.  General  criticisms  of  orchard. 

Best  points  observed.  Bad  points  observed. 

Other  Horticultural  Surveys. — Make  similar  surveys  for  bush 
fruits;  for  strawberries;  for  vineyards;  for  home  gardens;  for  truck 
and  market  gardens. 

It  may  be  worth  while  to  make  surveys  of  the  ornamental 
planting  done  in  the  last  few  years  on  home  grounds.  This  could 
be  very  profitable.  It  should  cover  the  number  and  kinds  of  vines 
planted;  places  where  planted;  number  and  kinds  of  ornamental 
shrubs  planted;  style  of  planting;  number  and  kinds  of  ornamental 
trees  planted;  number  and  kinds  of  evergreens  planted;  efforts  to 
obtain  lawns  and  the  success  of  these  efforts. 

Use  of  Charts  in  Teaching  Horticulture.3 — A  few  horticultural 
charts  are  on  the  market  and  should  be  obtained  by  the  schools 
that  can  afford  them.  In  some  cases  these  are  parts  of  general 
sets  of  agricultural  charts. 

The  school  should  make  a  number  of  charts  by  using  photo- 
graphs, drawings  and  illustrations,  clippings  from  bulletins  and  mag- 
azines. Have  suitable  wording  on  each  of  these  and  plan  the  series 
before  making  so  that  the  subject  matter  of  each  chart  will  be 
unified  and  not  too  complex.  Such  charts  are  very  useful  in  class 
work,  and  community  meetings,  fanners'  institutes,  conventions,  etc. 

Horticultural  Lantern  Slides.3 — If  the  school  is  equipped  to 
make  its  own  lantern  slides  or  can  have  them  made  locally,  a  num- 
ber of  suitable  subjects  may  be  obtained  from  the  region.  They 
will  be  of  much  more  value  than  slides  from  other  regions  made  by 
commercial  companies.  Lantern  slides  purchased  from  various 
supply  houses,  either  colored  or  plain,  may  be  used  to  good 
advantage  in  the  school  work  and  in  community  meetings. 

s  See  also  Chapter  XVI. 


A  BEAUTIFYING  PROJECT  193 

Stereoscopic  Views  and  Pictures.4 — Many  horticultural  views 
for  use  with  the  stereoscope  are  sold  by  supply  houses.  These 
cover  nearly  all  phases  of  fruit  growing,  garden  and  landscape 
work.  Usually  they  show  results  rather  than  operations. 

Local  pictures  should  be  taken  with  the  camera  to  show  opera- 
tions in  all  lines  of  work.  These  may  be  taken  with  a  small  camera, 
and  may  be  used  either  in  their  original  size  or  may  be  projected 
by  a  reflectoscope,  or  they  may  be  enlarged  and  used  from  time  to 
time  in  teaching  horticultural  methods. 

Home  Projects  in  Fruit  Growing. — Teaching  by  doing  is  best 
exemplified  in  the  home  project  work.  A  few  suggestions  for  the 
topics  and  scope  of  projects  in  fruit  growing  are  here  given: 

1.  Start  with  a  new  setting  of  raspberries  and  grow  the  crop  for  two  or 
three  years. 

2.  Set  and  grow  a  patch  of  blackberries  for  two  or  three  years. 

3.  Start  and  grow  a  patch  of  currants  or  gooseberries,  or  both,  for  two  or 
three  years. 

4.  Care  for  and  manage  a  bearing  vineyard  for  one  year. 

5.  Start  a  young  orchard  and  care  for  it  two  years — apples,  pears,  or 
peaches. 

6.  Manage  and  care  for  a  bearing  orchard  for  one  year,  preferably  in  early 
bearing  life. 

7.  A  short  project  may  consist  of  harvesting  and  marketing  a  crop  of 
peaches  for  one  season. 

8.  Renovate  an  old  orchard  and  care  for  it  one  or  more  years. 

9.  Grow  a  crop  of  strawberries  for  two  years.     This  may  be  confined  to 
one  year  by  starting  one  patch  and  managing  a  bearing  patch  at  the  same  time. 
Similar  combinations  could  be  made  in  the  projects  with  bush  fruits. 

10.  Prune,  spray,  and  care  for  the  home  orchard  for  one  year.     Let  this 
include  all  kinds  of  orchard  and  bush  fruits. 

11.  Start  a  nursery  of  fruit  trees  and  care  for  it  one  or  two  years. 
Home  Projects  with  Vegetables. — 1.  Raise  one  acre  or  more  of  Irish 

potatoes  for  profit. 

2.  A  larger  or  smaller  area  may  be  used  for  similar  projects  with  each  of 
the  following:     Sweet  potatoes,  onions  from  seed,  garlic,  onions  from  sets, 
celery,  cabbage,  snap  beans,  garden  peas,  lima  beans,  turnips  and  turnip 
greens,  sweet  corn,  watermelons,  cauliflower,  cucumbers,  tomatoes,  asparagus, 
and  other  crops. 

3.  Raise  hotbed  plants  for  sale,  and  market  the  crops.    This  may  include 
any  plants  suitable  for  transplanting,  as  cabbage,  cauliflower,  peppers,  egg- 
plant, tomatoes,  head  lettuce,  sweet  potatoes,  etc. 

4.  Grow  garden  crops  on  the  same  area  in  succession  for  one  season,  as 
garden  peas,  followed  by  snap  beans  or  pole  beans.    Use  any  other  succession 
cropping  when  desired. 

5.  Grow  a  general  market  garden  for  one  season,  using  as  many  crops  as 
may  be  found  profitable  on  the  area  assigned. 

A  Beautifying  Project. — -Plan  projects  in  the  improvement  of 
home  grounds  for  the  sake  of  making  the  place  more  valuable  (Fig. 

4  See  also  Chapter  XVI. 
13 


194 


HOW  TO  TEACH  HORTICULTURE 


77).    Elements  in  the  improvement  may  include  replanting  of  the 
yards,  planting  lawns,  trellising  when  advisable,  draining,  laying 


Fia.  77. — Teach  students  to  beautify  their  homes.     A  few  trees,  shrubs,  and  vines  would 
make  this  North  Dakota  homestead  more  inviting.     (A.  A.  Sather.) 

out  and  constructing  walls,  constructing  and  repainting  fences, 
planting  of  shrubbery,  planting  of  vines,  painting  and  whitewashing 


FIG.  78. — Give  students  training  in  planting  shrubs,  vines,  trees,  and  flowers  on  the  school 
campus.     (A.  A.  Sather.) 

wherever  needed.    Photographs  should  always  be  taken  before  and 
after  each  improvement  project.     Contests  may  be  run  in  con- 


TEACH  GARDENING  TO  SMALL  CHILDREN  195 

nection  with  each  of  them.  Valuations  of  the  farm  before  and  after 
should  be  made.  The  profits  from  such  improvements  may  thus 
lx^  determined.  Some  people  make  good  incomes  by  buying  places, 
improving  them,  and  selling  them  again. 

A  group  project  may  be  pursued  at  the  school  in  planting  and 
otherwise  beautifying  the  school  grounds  (Fig.  78). 

Teaching  Horticulture  in  Rural  Schools. — Much  of  the  equip- 
ment and  land  laboratory  mentioned  in  this  chapter  may  be  lacking 
at  nearly  all  rural  schools.  The  practice  work,  however,  may  be  on 
farms  near  the  school  (Fig.  79).  If  conveyances  are  available,  the 
school  may  be  easily  taken  to  orchards,  vineyards,  and  other  small 
fruit  plantations.  Much  of  the  work  of  the  pupils  in  the  school 
should  consist  of  their  home  projects  and  the  lessons  drawn  from 
them.  The  school  surveys  can  be  as  well  conducted  by  rural 
schools  as  by  high  schools  and  colleges.  The  rural  school  grounds 
should  be  improved:  Plan  and  construct  roads  and  walks,  select 
and  plant  flowers,  vines,  shrubs,  and  trees;  trellis,  prune,  spray, 
and  otherwise  care  for  the  growing  things. 

School  Gardening  at  Rural  Schools. — It  is  usually  not  advis- 
able for  rural  schools  to  attempt  to  maintain  vegetable  gardens 
throughout  the  summer.  For  small  children  who  do  not  already 
know  simple  garden  operations,  small  plots  of  vegetables  may 
be  grown  to  teach  these  methods.  The  students  should  continue 
to  practice  these  operations  in  their  home  gardens.  Let  the  les- 
sons given  on  the  school  garden  plots  be  instructive  and  not  mere 
drills  or  drudgery. 

Students  should  become  familiar  with  the  use  of  seed  catalogues. 
There  are  new  varieties  appearing  from  time  to  time  to  which  their 
attention  should  be  called.  Let  students  grow  in  the  school  gardens 
things  which  have  not  become  familiar  to  them.  In  some  sections 
Swiss  chard,  New  Zealand  spinach,  kohl-rabi  and  globe  artichoke 
are  among  uncommon  plants  which  may  be  worth  trying.  In  rural 
schools  it  is  important  to  stress  the  practice  of  companion  cropping 
and  succession  cropping. 

Teach  Gardening  to  Small  Children. — With  pupils  as  young  as 
the  elementary  grades  much  skill  in  teaching  gardening  is  required. 
They  need  to  be  shown  how  to  do  even  the  very  simple  things 
such  as  raking,  making  drill  rows,  dropping  seeds,  covering,  finn- 
ing the  soil,  thinning,  and  weeding. 

In  the  winter  time  small  children  may  make  a  model  of  a  home 
garden  on  sand  tables.  Much  ingenuity  may  be  used  in  this  work. 


196 


HOW  TO  TEACH  HORTICULTURE 


The  principles  of  pardoning  may  be  developed    if  some  effort  is 
made  to  do  so. 


Fio.   70. — The  rural  school  teacher  as  well  as  the  city  grade  teacher  may  supervise  the 
home  garden  work  of  students.     (T.  G.  Brown,  Wis.,  and  W.  V.  Longley,  Minn.) 

Elementary  children  should  have  practice  in  drawing  garden  plans. 
Let  one  line  on  a  paper  represent  each  row  of  the  garden.  Then  on 
this  row  write  or  print  neatly  the  names  of  crops  to  be  grown  in  the 


SHORT  COURSES  IN  HORTICULTURE  197 

row.  They  can  show  what  crops  will  follow  others  in  the  season  in 
each  row.  These  garden  plans  may  be  used  in  their  home  projects, 
or  they  may  be  compared  and  the  best  selected  for  use  in  planning 
a  model  home  garden  at  school  for  practice  in  different  operations. 

Children  in  the  grades  will  take  much  delight  and  get  much 
value  from  fighting  various  insects  that  are  enemies  of  the  garden 
and  orchard.  Suitable  breeding  cages  may  be  easily  devised  for 
this  purpose  and  may  be  kept  in  the  windows  of  the  school-room. 
When  the  transformations  of  the  insects  are  observed  children  will 
never  forget  them. 

A  very  good  form  of  exercise  for  grade  children  in  the  fall  is  the 
collection  of  garden  seeds  in  envelopes.  Teach  the  pupils  to  select 
seeds  from  plants  which  are  immune  to  disease  and  are  in  other 
ways  the  best  plants.  Seeds  must  be  properly  labeled  and  after 
drying  may  be  stored  where  they  will  not  be  attacked  by  mice 
and  weevils. 

In  the  winter,  primary  pupils  should  have  practice  in  seed  test- 
ing, making  pasteboard  boxes,  preparing  tin  cans  for  growing 
tomatoes,  making  sieves,  flats,  and  other  simple  equipment. 

Many  nature  lessons  connected  with  garden  materials  and 
specimens  should  be  given  to  pupils  of  the  lower  grades. 

Short  Courses  in  Horticulture. — High  schools  and  agricultural 
colleges  frequently  offer  short  courses  in  horticulture  to  farmers  and 
others  who  are  preparing  to  take  up  such  work.  The  plans  for  such 
courses  should  be  very  specific.  They  should  be  worked  out  to  the 
minutest  detail  in  advance.  A  careful  study  of  the  subjects  to 
be  included  in  such  short  courses  must  be  made  by  the  person  in 
charge.  Omit  nonessentials  and  do  not  plan  to  give  the  so-called 
prerequisites  or  fundamental  sciences  as  would  be  required  for 
long  courses. 

Most  of  the  work  in  short  00111*808  should  be  the  art  rather  than 
the  science  of  horticulture.  Let  all  lessons  be  founded  upon  prac- 
tices and  methods  rather  than  upon  theories. 

After  the  subject  matter  has  been  planned,  then  a  definite  line 
of  methods  should  be  formulated  to  be  followed  during  the  course. 
Gather  together  all  illustrative  material  in  the  way  of  slides, 
charts,  pictures,  materials,  and  apparatus. 

The  season  of  the  year  will  determine  largely  the  operations 
which  can  be  carried  on.  Spare  no  pains  to  have  every  operation 
conducted  in  the  best  way,  and  have  as  many  actual  operations  as 
possible.  For  example,  if  outdoor  weather  does  not  allow  spray- 


198  HOW  TO  TEACH  HORTICULTURE 

ing,  the  operations  of  making  and  diluting  materials  and  using  the 
apparatus  may  be  demonstrated  indoors.  The  instructors  in  charge 
should  feel  it  incumbent  upon  them  to  have  all  lessons  thoroughly 
illustrated  and  demonstrated  to  the  people  who  are  taking  the 
short  courses.  No  time  should  be  wasted.  Many  demonstrations 
can  be  set  up  in  advance  of  the  hour  scheduled,  and  thus  more 
demonstrations  may  be  given  in  the  same  length  of  time. 

Another  principle  in  the  teaching  of  students  attending  short 
courses  in  horticulture  is  that  each  lesson  must  be  impressed  upon 
the  students  in  several  ways.  Better  teach  the  same  lessons  several 
times  in  different  ways  than  to  give  several  lessons  poorly.  If  a 
student  attending  a  course  carries  away  a  few  ideas  well  fixed  so  that 
he  will  actually  practice  them  the  rest  of  his  life,  the  course  will  have 
done  more  good  than  if  the  student  feels  he  is  getting  more  than  he 
can  remember.  No  instructor  should  be  allowed  to  exhibit  himself 
as  a  walking  cyclopedia  with  many  facts  to  give  to  his  students. 
He  should  not  try  to  show  off  his  great  amount  of  knowledge.  The 
best  teachers  for  short  courses  are  those  who  impress  their  teach- 
ing well  by  homely  illustrations,  by  well-prepared  demonstrations, 
by  practice,  by  drills,  and  by  applying  the  lessons  to  the  farm 
projects  of  the  members  of  the  class. 

Types  of  Short  Courses  in  Horticulture. — Short  courses  are  of 
many  different  lengths.  They  may  be  offered  to  adults  who  can 
attend  only  at  night  for  a  week  or  two.  Or  they  may  be  given 
for  a  few  weeks  both  day  and  night.  Or  they  may  continue  for  a 
few  months  in  some  suitable  time  of  the  year  when  students  can 
best  attend.  Young  and  old  farmers  often  find  it  possible  to 
attend  short  courses  during  the  winter  season.  City  people 
often  plan  to  attend  short  courses  in  the  summer,  as  at  Chau- 
tauqua  courses. 

Horticulture  on  the  Reading  Table.5 — It  is  well  to  have  on  a 
shelf  or  on  a  reading  table  a  few  of  the  best  horticultural  periodicals 
that  may  be  consulted  from  time  to  time  by  students  and  instruc- 
tors. These  should  include  publications  which  relate  to  fruit 
growing,  gardening,  landscape  work,  and  nursery  work.  Some 
general  periodicals  which  have  good  departments  devoted  to 
horticulture  may  be  included. 

Ix>t  miscellaneous  horticultural  publications  be  placed  on  the 
reading  table.  Many  seed  houses  issue  good  catalogues  and  other 
pamphlets  which  are  worthy  of  a  place1  here.  The  spraying  corn- 

6  Seo  ulso  Chapter  XVII. 


REFERENCE  LIBRARY  IN  HORTICULTURE 


199 


panics  will  ho  glad  to  furnish  their  catalogues  regularly  for  this 
purpose.  Obtain  also  the  literature  of  manufacturers  of  insecti- 
cides, fertilizers,  and  packages  for  marketing. 

Using  Supplementary  Matter  in  Horticulture. — Students  may 
be  encouraged  to  call  the  attention  of  the  class  to  the  best  matter 
appearing  in  the  periodicals,  bulletins,  or  other  matter  on  the  reading 
table.  Some  articles  may  occasionally  be  assigned  as  topics  for  the 
students  to  report  to  the  class. 

Reference    Library  in  Horticulture. — In    Chapter  XVII    are 


Fio.  80. — Students  with  their  instructor  laying  out  and  planting  a  pearh  orchard.     (H.  N. 

Loomis,  Mass.) 

given  the  best  methods  of  keeping  horticultural  books  and  bulletins. 
(See  lists  in  Appendix).  These  should  be  used  abundantly  by  the 
students  in  looking  up  the  topics  for  studying  their  individual  home 
projects.  They  should  also  be  used  in  preparing  practice  .for  rec- 
itation in  the  class-room.  They  should  also  be  used  in  looking  up 
principles  and  methods  to  supplement  the  text  on  all  points.  Some 
of  them  may  be  helpful  in  suggesting  or  giving  details  of  exercises 
in  the  field  or  laboratory. 

The  reference  books  and  bulletins  may  be  consulted  by  people 
of  the  neighborhood,  and  in  some  cases  perhaps  may  be  drawn  for 
use  at  their  homes.  Much  time  of  the  instructor  may  be  saved 
by  referring  inquirers  to  bulletins  and  books  on  the  reference  shelves 
of  the  school.  Some  of  these  may  be  led  to  secure  the  bulletins 
and  books  for  their  own  use  at  home. 


200 


MOW  TO  TKACH  HORTICULTURE 


Things  to  Discover  in  Horticulture. — Students  of  horticulture 
be  induced  to  discover  for  themselves  many  things  which 


1  Hi.  SI.  —  Planting  young  fruit  trees  on  the  school  land  laboratory.  Upper,  showing  how- 
error  might  arise  through  the  use  of  a  carelessly  made  planting  board.  Lower,  horticulture 
class  demonstrating  to  other  students  a  proper  method  of  tree  planting.  (H.  A.  Savage.) 


the  tast  horticulturists  are  required  to  discover.     Some  of  these 
things  are  here  suggested: 

1.  When  are  fruit  buds  first  developed  on  young  peach  trees,  and  where 
are  they  placed? 

2.  Discover  the  effects  on  fruit  buds  and  shoot  buds  of  the  lowest  winter 
temperature  and  of  sleet  storms. 


HORTICULTURAL  OBSERVATIONS 


201 


3.  Discover  how  bright  sunshine  on  winter  snows  may  develop  sun  scale 
on  '^ree  trunks,  and  find  a  remedy  if  possible. 

4.  Discover  the  bad  effects  of  high  heading  of  orchard   trees;  also  o» 
low  heading. 

5.  Discover  the  bad  effects  of  late  spring  frosts  in  orchards  and  vineyards. 

Horticultural  Observations. — Teach  students  to  make  observa- 
tions for  themselves  and  report  them  to  their  parents  and  to 
the  class.  These  observations  may  be  connected  with  their  own 


FIG.   82. — Students  and  farmers  should  be  taught  how  to  euro  and  .store  swept  potatoes  in  a 

house  with  a  good  ventilation  system.     Make  a  lantern  slide  of  such  a  subject  to  show  at 

community  meetings.     (P.  L.  Guilbeau,  La.) 

projects,  with  the  projects  of  neighbors,  along  the  highways  and 
byways,  and  on  school  grounds.  Some  lines  of  observation  are 
here  suggested: 

1.  The  good  effects  of  winter  mulching  of  strawberries. 

2.  Make  a  chart  of  the  observed  blooming  dates  of  many  varieties  of  sev- 
eral kinds  of  fruits.    These  charts  should  include  dates  of  the  first  bloom,  full 
bloom,  and  last  bloom  for  each. 

3.  Observe  what  varieties  of  individual  trees  bear  heavy  crops  of  blos- 
soms  without   bearing  much   fruit,    thus   observing  what    varieties  will  not 
pollinate  themselves. 

4.  Observe  the  first  appearance  of  shoots  on  different  plants  and  arrange 
8.  list  of  those  most  susceptible  to  injury  by  late  frosts. 


202  HOW  TO  TEACH  HORTICULTURE 

5.  Observe  in  the  winter  how  huds  and  small  twigs  are  protected. 

0.  Observe  in  the  fall  what  plants  continue  growth  until  winter;  and 
observe  the  effects  on  this  of  growing  winter  cover  crops  consisting  of  nitrogen 
gatherers,  as  clover  and  vetch. 

7.  Observe  what  varieties  are  most  immune  to  special  diseases,  as  brown 
rot  in  the  peach  orchard  and  plum  orchard;  wilt  in  tomatoes;  yellows  in  cab- 
bage; bitter  rot  in  apples. 

8.  Determine  by  observation  the  effects  of  special  fertilizers  on  growth 
and  fruit  bearing  in  vegetable  gardens;  in  orchards  and  small  fruit  plantations. 

Things  to  Do  in  Horticulture. — Young  people  studying  horti- 
culture should  be  taught  to  feel  the  responsibility  of  doing  things 
at  the  proper  time.  They  should  also  be  taught  the  most  careful 
and  correct  methods  of  doing  things.  A  number  of  the  methods  to 
be  taught  in  the  vegetable  garden  have  been  mentioned  in  this 
chapter.  Teach  how  to  lay  out  orchards  (Fig.  80) .  Teach  the  very 
best  methods  of  planting  a  tree  or  shrub  (Fig.  81).  Teach  how  to 
dig  a  tree,  bush,  or  vine  to  get  the  best  roots.  Teach  how  to  trans- 
plant an  evergreen  without  disturbing  the  soil  about  the  roots. 
Teach  how  to  plant  cuttings  that  are  to  take  root  in  the  soil.  Teach 
how  to  make  cuttings  of  all  plants  that  will  readily  reproduce 
themselves  by  cuttings.  Teach  how  to  prune  without  the  loss  of 
sap.  Teach  how  to  topwork  fruit  trees.  Teach  how  to  dig  for 
borers  at  the  proper  time.  Teach  how  to  protect  trees  from  borers. 
Teach  how  to  catch  rabbits  or  other  enemies  of  young  trees.  Teach 
how  to  attract  the  birds.  Teach  how  to  prevent  birds  from 
eating  cherries  without  killing  the  birds — by  watering  and  feeding. 
Teach  how  to  cut  sod  and  lay  sod.  Teach  how  to  make  trellises  and 
contours.  Teach  how  to  thin  fruit.  Teach  how  to  pick  fruit  prop- 
erly. Teach  how  to  manage  fruit  pickers.  Teach  how  to  sell 
crops.  Teach  how  to  store  crops  (Fig.  82). 

Things  to  Solve  in  Horticulture. — There  are  many  puzzles 
which  present  themselves  to  the  horticulturist.  Students  should 
learn  to  solve  these  as  clearly  and  as  correctly  as  they  can. 
Some  of  these  puzzles  are  here  suggested,  but  no  instructor 
need  try  to  invent  the  puzzles.  He  should  watch  for  them, 
however,  and  assign  them  to  students  to  solve.  No  better  train- 
ing can  be  found. 

1.  How  do  varieties  become  mixed  in  orchards,  fruit  plantations,  and 
gardens? 

2.  I>earn  to  name  puzzling  varieties  which  present  themselves  from  time 
to  time  at  the  home  or  on  neighboring  places. 

3.  What  fertilizers  would  be  best  under  special  conditions  of  growth  or 
fruit  lx>aring? 

4.  Should  the  strawberry  patch  be  kept  another  year? 


EXERCISES  203 

5.  What  methods  of  rejuvenation  should  lx>  applied  to  the  old  orchard? 
(').  What  would  be  the  best  intercropping  for  the  small  fruit  plantation 
or  orchard? 

7.  How  can  intercropping  be  conducted  and  yet  protect  the  soil  from 
washing  during  the  winter  season? 

8.  What  is  the  best  use  to  be  made  of  the  vegetable  garden  area  during 
the  winter? 

9.  What  cover  crops  are  best  for  your  home  conditions? 

10.  When   should   the  mulch  over  strawberries  or  other  vegetation  be 
removed  in  the  spring? 

11.  What  enemies  are  causing  certain  troubles? 

12.  What  remedies  can  be   used   to  prevent  the;  production  of  too  small 
peaches  or  too  small  apples? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  number  of  grafts  and  buds,  select  the  best  of  each  type,  varnish 
these  with  a  thin  coat,  and  mount  them  on  a  heavy  cardboard  for  illustration 
in  your  class  work. 

2.  If  possible,  make  a  collection  of  grafting  knives,  budding  knives,  and 
pruning  knives  and  mount  them  on  a  heavy  cardboard  for  class-room  use. 

3.  Make  a  collection  of  examples  of  good  and  bad  pruning,  varnish  these 
and  mount  them  on  heavy  cardboard  for  your  class-room  . 

4.  Obtain  the  material  and  make  grafting  wax  and  pull  it  according  to 
directions  in  horticultural  books. 

5.  Wind  a  ball  of  No.  18  knitting  cotton  into  a  skein  eight  or  ten  inches 
long,  cut  this  at  both  ends  and  dip  in  melted  grafting  wax.    The  strands  are 
thus  made  ready  to  use  in  grafting  and  budding  (as  directed  for  students). 

6.  Make  a  collection  of  samples  of  orchard  soils  and  subsoils. 

7.  Make  a  list  of  annual  vines  and  state  the  kind  of  surface  or  trellis  to 
which  each  is  adapted. 

8.  Make  a  similar  list  of  perennial  vines. 

9.  Make  a  list  of  the  native  shrubs  of  your  state  suitable  for  use  in  planting 
on  home  or  school  grounds. 

10.  Construct  a  rack  suitable  for  the  keeping  of  garden  tools  for  a  class 
of  twelve  students. 

11.  Construct  a  hotbed  or  coldframe  and  start  it  at  the  proper  season. 

12.  Read  over  the  twenty-eight   lines  of  laboratory  and   practice  work, 
in  fruit  growing,  suggested  in  this  chapter  and  perform  as  many  of  these  as 
is  practical. 

13.  Do  likewise  for  the  exercises  in  gardening. 

14.  Do  likewise  for  the  outdoor  garden  exercises. 

15.  Do  likewise  for  the  outdoor  exercises  in  orcharding. 

1().  Conduct  an  orchard  survey  or  a  small   fruit  survey  for  horticultural 
teaching  and  reference. 

17.  Conduct  a  trip  to  study  a  neighborhood  orchard,  or  some  similar  trip. 

18.  Take  a  number  of  photographs  of  horticultural  subjects  and  mount 
these  for  class-room  use. 

19.  Make  lantern  slides  of  some  of  the  best  of  these. 

20.  Plan  the  details  for  a  year's  work  in  a  beautifying  project. 

21.  Make  a  full  program  for  a  three  days'  short  course  in  fruit  growing. 

22.  Make  a  lesson  plan  according  to  the  suggestions  in  Chapter  IV  for  a 
recitation  in  small  fruit  growing. 

23.  Make  a  similar  plan  for  a  lesson  in  gardening. 

24.  Make  a  similar  plan  for  a  lesson  in  orcharding. 

25.  Read  the  topics  for  debate  in  Chapter  XI,  then  make  a  list  of  eight 
questions  for  debate  in  horticulture. 


204  HOW  TO  TEACH  HORTICULTURE 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  arc  the  subjects  usually  included  in  a  full  course  in  horticulture  for 
high  schools? 

'2.  In  what  regions  would  you  give  some  attention  to  nut  culture?  To  for- 
estry? To  landscape  gardening? 

3.  Why  does  the  work  in  small  fruits  lend  itself  better  to  home  projects  than 

does  orchard  work? 

4.  Under  what  conditions  is  the  reverse  true? 

5.  Tell  how  to  store  roots,  scions,  and  other  material  to  be  kept  fresh  for 

winter  practice  work. 

6.  At  what  season  would  you  have  students  practice  the  home  mixing  of 

fertilizers  for  horticultural  work? 

7.  Give  a  list  of  outdoor  equipment  for  teaching  horticulture. 

8.  Descril)e  a  good  way  of  keeping  garden  tools  orderly. 

9.  Distinguish  between  a  hotbed  and  a  colclframe. 

10.  Would  you  make  a  school  greenhouse?     Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 

11.  Give  reasons  for  using  the  topical  method  in  class-room  work  in  horticulture. 

12.  Give  directions  for  keeping  notebooks  on  laboratory  work. 

13.  Give  a  long  list  of  laboratory  exercises  and  practice  work  in  fruit  growing. 

14.  Give  a  long  list  of  laboratory  exercises  and  practice  work  in  gardening. 

15.  Give  a  long  list  of  outdoor  gardening  exercises. 

1(5.  Select  from  the  list  of  outdoor  exercises  in  orcharding  and  fruit  growing, 
things  which  would  be  valuable  in  your  state. 

17.  Give  a  list  of  points  to  be  studied  on  a  trip  to  a  neighboring  vineyard,  or 

to  a  strawberry  plantation. 

18.  Give  a  list  of  points  to  be  studied  on  a  trip  to  a  neighboring  orchard. 

19.  What  value  can  be  obtained  by  taking  students  on  a  trip  to  a  good  home 

garden? 

20.  What  good  can  be  gained  from  a  trip  to  study  landscape  gardening? 

21.  Give  the  chief  points  to  be  studied  in  an  orchard  survey.     In  a  garden 

survey. 

22.  Make  a  suggestive  list  of  suitable  charts  for  teaching  horticulture. 

23.  Give  a  list  of  suitable  projects  in  small  fruits;  a  list  in  gardening. 

24.  Suggest  a  list  of  home  projects  in  orcharding  which  could  be  completed 

within  one  or  two  years. 

25.  How  could  a  student  make  a  landscape  gardening  project  profitable? 

2(>.  Give  suggestions  for  the  teaching  of  fruit  growing  in  rural  schools;  in  town 
grades. 

27.  Give  directions  for  teaching  gardening  to  small  children. 

28.  Why  should  the  agricultural  school  hold  a  winter  short  course  in  fruit 

growing?    Why  in  home  gardening? 

29.  Give  a  list  of  suitable  books  for  the  reference  shelves  in  fruit  growing; 

in  gardening. 

30.  Mention  things  to  discover  in  horticulture. 

31.  Mention  observations  to  make  in  horticulture. 

32.  (Jive  a  list  of  things  to  learn  how  to  do  in  horticulture. 

33.  Give  a  list  of  problems  to  be  solved  in  horticulture. 


CHAPTER  X 

HOW  TO  TEACH  FARM    MECHANICS,  ENGINEERING, 
AND  SHOP  WORK 

"The  specific  aim  of  the  work  in  farm  engineering  is  to  prepare  young 
people  so  to  plan,  locate,  construct,  and  maintain  farm  buildings,  fences, 
roads,  and  drainage  (or  irrigation)  systems;  and  so  to  select,  operate,  and  main- 
tain farm  machinery  and  mechanical  equipment  as  to  contribute  most  highly 
to  the  profit  and  pleasure  of  fanning." — Report  of  Committee  on  Agriculture 
of  the  N.  E.  A.  Commission  on  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education. 

EVERY  farmer  must  from  the  very  nature  of  his  business  be  a 
mechanic.  It  is  self-evident  that  he  ought  to  be  a  good  mechanic. 
The  interest  which  most  students  naturally  have  in  mechanical 
things  shows  that  they  can  be  trained  readily  and  successfully  to  be 
good  mechanics.  High  schools  and  colleges  offering  general  courses 
in  farm  mechanics  do  well  to  place  these  courses  in  the  early  years 
of  the  training. 

Content  of  the  Course. — The  whole  realm  of  farm  engineering, 
farm  mechanics,  and  farm  shop  work  may  be  included  in  this 
course.  Most  of  the  exercises  included  in  such  a  course  are  in 
themselves  nonproductive.  They  are  rather  a  means  to  an  end. 
They  are  involved  in  productive  projects  with  both  animals  and 
plants.  In  the  broadest  sense  this  course  should  include  the  study 
of  farm  machinery,  farm  motors,  farm  buildings,  rural  sanitation, 
road  construction  and  maintenance,  simple  blacksmithing,  pipe 
fitting,  rope  work,  land  measurement,  terracing,  leveling  practice, 
drainage  and  irrigation. 

Special  Methods  in  Teaching  the  Subjects. — In  the  long 
courses  in  high  schools  and  in  college  courses,  principles  as  well  as 
practice  should  be  so  well  taught  that  the  students  are  able  to  adapt 
methods  to  new  conditions.  After  such  a  course,  it  should  not  be 
necessary  for  students  to  work  by  "rule  of  thumb. "  They  should 
understand  how  to  adapt  the  principles  to  their  own  home  con- 
ditions and  projects.  For  example,  when  the  matter  of  farm  power 
is  being  taught,  the  principles  of  working  problems  in  belting, 
pulleys,  speed,  and  power  should  be  well  understood. 

When  rafters  for  building  are  being  cut,  the  methods  of  cut- 
ting under  all  ordinary  conditions  should  be  learned  instead  of 
following  patterns. 

In  road  construction  the  principles  of  drainage,  foundations, 

205 


206    FARM  MECHANICS,  ENGINEERING,  AND  SHOP  WORK 


and  wearing  surfaces  should  be  well  understood.  Do  not  merely 
learn  how  to  operate  in  one  particular  case.  In  building  concrete 
floors  for  barns  the  conditions  which  will  prevent  the  accumulation 
of  moisture  under  all  circumstances  should  be  learned.  Do  not 
conclude  that  one  example  will  suffice  under  all  conditions. 

When  studying  the  repair  and  adjustment  of  farm  machinery, 
the  principles  of  transmission  and  their  application  in  complex 
machinery  should  be  well  understood  (Fig.  93).  When  farm  motors 


FIG.  83. 


FIG.  84. 


V 

•  - 

FIG.  83. — A  farm  shop-room  showing  very  good  equipment.     (L.  A.  Henke.) 
FIG.  84. — Iowa  students  making  racks  for  drying  seed  corn.     (Fonda  School.) 

are  being  studied,  the  principles  of  the  gasoline  engine  should  be  so 
well  understood  that  the  student  can  as  easily  repair  one  common 
form  as  another. 

Equipment  for  Farm  Shop  Work.— Schools  offering  courses  in 
farm  shop  work  should  have  a  lighted  room  with  sufficient  heat  to 
allow  the  work  to  be  carried  on  even  in  severe  winter  weather. 
There  should  be  simple  wood-working  benches  with  vises  (Figs. 
83  and  84). 

There  should  be  a  few  good  carpentry  tools,  including  cross-cut 
hand  saws,  rip  saws,  and  perhaps  a  large  wood  saw,  hammers, 
chisels  of  one  or  two  widths,  braces  and  set  of  bits  for  wood,  a  jack- 
plane,  miter-box,  framing-square,  tri-square,  hatchet,  drawing- 
knife,  spoke-shave. 

For  metal  working,  one  forge  and  a  heavy  anvil  should  usually 
be  provided  in  the  school  shop.  The  necessary  forge  tools  should 
include  tongs,  shovel,  poker.  Anvil  tools  should  include  a  hardie, 


EQUIPMENT  FOR  TEACHING  FARM  POWER  WORK     207 

one  or  two  types  of  hammers,  cold-chisel.  On  the  wall  should  be 
placed  a  press-drill  provided  with  a  set  of  bits.  On  the  blacksmith 
bench  there  should  be  a  good  machinist's  vise  with  pipe  jaw  and 
anvil  back.  Have  sets  of  taps  and  dies.  There  should  lie  supplies 
of  bolts  of  several  types  and  sizes.  Square,  round,  and  flat  steel 
bars  should  be  ready  for  use  in  repair  of  machinery. 

For  soldering  and  tinning,  have  simple  and  inexpensive  outfits. 

For  pipe  fitting,  a  die  stock  and  set  of  several  sizes  of  dies, 


Fia.  85. — Students  being  taught  to  clean,  oil,  and  repair  farm  harness.   (H.  N.  Loomis,  Mas-O 


pipe  cutter,  pipe  wrenches,  and  supplies  of  fittings  and  pipe  of  such 
sizes  as  will  be  used  in  various  exercises. 

For  harness  repair  work,  have  leather  punches,  supplies  of  rivets, 
sewing  clamps,  needles,  awls,  wax,  and  thread.  Provide  supplies 
of  snaps,  buckles,  and  other  harness  hardware  of  the  common  sizes. 

Equipment  forTeaching  Farm  Power  Work  — If  possible,  provide 
an  old  gasoline  engine  which  can  be  used  to  take  apart,  put  together, 
and  adjust  until  all  parts  are  well  understood.  A  gasoline  engine 
should  be  belted  to  a  countershaft  which  is  belted  to  various 
machines  for  different  farm  purposes.  These  may  be  for  sawing 
wood,  pumping  water,  grinding  tools,  grinding  grain,  lighting,  etc. 

If  convenient,  have  a  windmill  for  the  study  of  its  principles  and 
methods  of  management.  This  may  be  omitted  in  regions  where 
windmills  are  not  used.  Besides  the  common  gasoline  engine,  a 
gas  tractor  should  be  provided  if  possible.  This  may  be  borrowed 
when  it  is  not  possible  to  own  one. 


208   FARM  MECHANICS,  ENGINEERING,  AND  SHOP  WORK 

A  steam-boiler  and  steam-engine  may  be  of  service  in  teaching 
the  principles  of  their  operation.  Such  equipment  would  be  most 
valuable  in  regions  where  such  machines  are  to  be  used,  as  in  dairy- 
ing. Have  in  the  shed  outside  the  shop,  farm  machinery  which  is 
available  for  repair  work,  the  study  of  adjustments,  the  replacement 
of  parts,  and  the  measurement  of  power. 

Class  Work  in  Farm  Mechanics.— Most  of  the  class  instruction 
should  be  with  the  mechanical  devices  themselves.  Demonstrations 
in  testing  the  power  of  engines  is  an  example  of  good  material 
for  class  instruction. 


Fm.   80. —  Tearh  students  to  make  rope  halters,  different  kinds  of  knots  and  splices.  (L.  A. 

Henke.) 

When  a  class  is  to  be  given  a  laboratory  exercise  in  mending 
harness  (Fig.  85),  a  demonstration  in  the  methods  of  doing  this 
with  proper  explanation  and  discussion  by  members  of  the  class 
should  precede  the  laboratory  work.  Similar  instructions  should 
precede  lal>oratory  work  in  pipe  fitting,  soldering,  tempering, 
framing  buildings,  making  concrete,  and  installing  watering  sys- 
tems, or  lighting  systems. 

Ix*t  all  the  class  work  precede  or  follow  the  practice  and  lab- 
oratory work.  When  general  principles  are  to  be  taught  to  long 
course  students,  these  principles  may  be  stated  and  worked  out  by 
members  of  the  class  just  before  or  just  after  the  work  with  these 
materials  (Fig.  86). 

Reviews  and  quizzes  upon  lessons  learned  in  the  actual  work  in 
the  practicums  and  laboratory  exercises  should  be  given  from  time 


FARM  MECHANICS  AND  SHOP  WORK 


200 


to  time.  Such  reviews  will  lead  the  students  into  habits  of  keeping 
their  minds  upon  their  work.  Students  that  do  not  keep  their 
minds  upon  their  problems  while  at  work  will  soon  find  they  are 
missing  much  that  other  students  are  gaining. 


Fio.  87. — A  few  have  combined  the  hog  oiler  and  self-feeder  in  their  pig  project  work.   Every 

pig  is  thus  oiled  at  little  expense  and  trouble.    The  oiled  pad  is  placed  where  it  will  rub  their 

ears,  head,  and  neck  when  they  are  eating.     (After  A.  W.  Turner  in  Wallace's  Farmer.) 

Farm  Mechanics  and  Shop  Work. — If  students  pursuing  the 
course  are  all  from  farms  or  are  conducting  farm  projects,  the  first 
and  most  important  lines  of  shop  work  should  be  made  up  of  those 


fW6t. 


PiJMtf  fl(XM. 


/KM-  WOfi/dHG  B£NC». 


FIG.  88. — Floor  plan  of  individual  workshop  for  a  boy's  home  shop.    (U.  S.  D.  A.) 

problems  with  which  the  individual  members  of  the  class  are 
directly  concerned.  If  one  or  more  members  of  the  class  are  con- 
ducting a  poultry  project  and  are  in  need  of  simple  poultry  houses 
such  as  movable  colony  houses,  they  should  be  taught  to  construct 
these,  and  may  do  this  either  at  the  school  during  laboratory 
periods  or  at  their  homes  as  part  of  their  project  work.  If  desired, 

14 


210   FARM  MECHANICS,  ENGINEERING,  AND  SHOP  WORK 

all  members  of  the  class  may  be  given  the  same  exercise  (see  figures 
in  Poultry  Chapter). 

In  the  following  list  a  number  of  projects  are  mentioned,  and 
with  each  is  a  list  of  several  kinds  of  shop  or  mechanical  work  to  be 
performed  as  short  exercises  or  problems  by  students  while  pur- 
suing those  projects. 

In  poultry  projects:     Colony  houses,  dry  mash  hoppers,  trap 

nests,  common  nests,  dropping  boards,  roosts,  coops,  and  brooders. 

In  dairy  projects:     Mending  and  soldering  seams  of  dairy 

utensils,  repairing  separators,  mending  strainers,  making  new 

handles,  milking  stools,  feed-record 
boards,  weight-record  boards,  test-bottle 
drain-boards,  milk-bottle  carriers,  stan- 
chions for  feeding  calves,  stanchions  for 
tying  cows,  scale  crane  for  weighing 
feed,  manure  trucks,  concrete  floors  in 
barns,  feed  chutes  in  barns,  milk  houses, 
ice  houses. 

In  beef  cattle  projects:  Feed 
troughs  for  corn  and  other  concen- 
trates, feeding  sheds,  feed  racks, 
weighing  pens  for  scales,  manure  car- 
riers, concrete  floors. 

In  swine  projects:  Movable  pig  cots 
with  or  without  floors,  self -feeding  hop- 
pers (Fig.  87),  hog  oiling  devices,  dip- 
ping vats,  slop  troughs,  water  supply 
lines,  hot  weather  shade  cots,  mineral 
pits,  shipping  crates,  hurdle  fences. 
In  sheep  projects:    Sheds  for  winter  quarters,  concrete  or  other 
dry  floors,  racks  for  roughage  to  keep  wool  clean,  grain  troughs, 
individual  lambing  pens,  lamb  creeps,  hurdle  fences,  dipping  vats, 
shearing  platforms  or  tables,  shipping  crates. 

In  mule,  horse,  or  colt  projects :  Paddocks  for  mother  and  foal, 
box  stalls,  feed  boxes,  hay  racks,  braiding  manes  and  tails,  splicing 
ropes,  making  rope  halters,  making  or  repairing  leather  halters 
and  harness,  splicing  chain,  making  tie  posts  of  concrete,  trim- 
ming hoofs,  making  and  setting  shoes. 

In  horticultural  projects:  Making  labels,  plant  trays,  garden 
stakes,  twine  winders,  garden  markers,  handles  for  tools;  repairing 
broken  tools;  sharpening  tools;  making  tool  racks;  stamping  tools 


FIG.  89. — A  good  drawing  for  a 
chart  to  hang  in  the  school  shop. 
It  shows  how  to  connect  pipes  so 
as  to  draw  hot  water  as  soon  as  the 
fire  starta. 


WORK  AT  THE  SCHOOL 


211 


with  names  and  numbers;  painting  and  repairing  garden  imple- 
ments; making  shipping  crates,  bushel  measures,  baskets,  fruit 
boxes,  and  barrels,  hotbed  frames,  hotbed  covers;  glazing  sash; 
building  storage  cellars;  making  concrete  flower  pits;  potting 
benches  or  tables. 

In  field  crop  projects:  Cribs,  bins,  and  granaries  for  storage  of 
products;  repair  of  implements  used  in  any  project;  special  devices 
for  particular  crops,  as  seed-corn  racks,  tobacco  harvesting  racks, 


Fia.  90. — Take  students  to  study  country    lighting  and    water-pressure  systems.     They 
should  study   them   enough   to    help   install   them   in   other    country   homes.      (Fairbanks- 
Morse  Co.) 

tobacco  barns,  deep  beds  for  hauling  cotton,  grain  sieves,  bushel 
measurers,  Aveighing  places. 

In  farm  improvement  projects:  Making  concrete  walks, 
repairing  and  constructing  fences,  building  and  maintaining 
roads,  painting  and  whitewashing  buildings,  making  gates,  building 
implement  sheds  and  hay  sheds,  repairing  gutters,  repairing  roofs, 
repairing  porch  and  other  floors,  glazing  windows,  repairing 
chimneys,  moving  small  buildings,  installing  farm  shops  (Fig.  88), 
repairing  and  installing  water  lines,  making  septic  tanks,  install- 
ing kitchen  sinks  and  drains,  installing  water  tanks  (Fig.  89),  in- 
stalling bathroom  fixtures,  wiring  buildings  for  electric  current, 
installing  simple  lighting  systems  (Fig.  90),  installing  farm  power. 

Work  at  the  School. — Let  the  bench  exercises  at  the  school  con- 
sist of  making  things  for  use  on  the  farm  (Figs.  84,  91,  and  111). 
The  making  of  household  furniture  should  seldom  find  a  place  in 
the  farm  shop  course  of  the  school.  Have  machines  brought  to  the 
school  for  study  if  possible  (Fig.  92). 


212   FARM  MECHANICS,  ENGINEERING,  AND  SHOP  WORK 

|          I 


Fio.  91. — Farm  shop  work  in  wood  by  high-school   students.    The  school  janitor  was  an 
experienced  carpenter  and  was  put  in  charge  of  this  class.     (C.  H.  Winkler,  W.  Va.) 


Fio.  92. — Agricultural    students   studying   several   types  of   planters    in   the   school-room. 
These  were  borrowed  for  the  purpose  from  a  local  dealer.    (L.  M.  Banknight,  S.  Carolina.) 

Projects  in  Farm  Mechanics  and  Engineering. — Besides  the 
lists  of  mechanical  work  suggested  in  connection  with  other  agri- 


COMMUNITY  SURVEYS  IN  FARM  MECHANICS 


cultural  projects  above,  students  may  take  up  projects  for  the  sake 
of  practice  in  farm  mechanics  and  engineering.  Some  lines  suitable 
for  such  projects  are: 

1.  Terracing  and  contouring  of  sloping  fields  and  orchards. 

2.  Tile  drainage  of  land. 

3.  Planning  and  installing  irrigation  systems  of  various  types. 

4.  Damming  streams  and  harnessing  water  power  for  various  purposes. 

5.  Surveying  to  correct  or  reestablish  old  boundary  lines  of  farms. 

6.  Measuring  lines  and  areas  of  all  farm  fields,  and  mapping  them. 

7.  Measuring  farms  and  subdividing  them  for  division  among  heirs. 

8.  Installing  hydraulic  rams. 

Shop  Work  with  Farm  Power. — Students  should  learn  to  install 
the  various  types  of  engines  with  or  without  the  use  of  counter- 


Fir;.  93. — Learning  to  use  such  machinery  helps  to  keep  boys  on  the  farm. 

Morse  Co.) 


(Fairbanks- 


shafts.  They  should  learn  to  compute  the  speed  of  engines  and 
figure  the  size  of  pulley  wheels  to  give  the  proper  speed  of  machines 
operated  with  these  engines.  They  should  study  gas  engines  in  many 
ways,  timing  ignition,  exhaust  on  valves,  governors,  testing  the 
brake  horse-power.  They  should  be  able  to  solve  gas  engine  troubles, 
operate  tractors,  and  perhaps  steam-engines  and  steam-boilers. 

Community  Surveys  in  Farm  Mechanics. — The  chief  needs  for 
farm  surveys  in  mechanical  lines  are : 

(1)  To  be  able  to  take  classes  to  particular  places  where  certain  conditions 
and  systems  may  be  illustrated.  (2)  To  be  able  to  refer  to  particular  places 
in  the  community  where  certain  mistakes  have  been  made  or  certain  good 
things  have  been  accomplished.  (3)  To  he  able  to  know  where  certain  appa- 
ratus or  devices  may  be  located  and  borrowed  for  use,  or  for  illustration  in 
school  instruction.  (4)  To  be  able  to  know  the  conditions  on  different  farms, 
so  that  the  school  and  instructor  may  be  able  to  help  or  advise  members  of  the 
community  more  intelligently. 


214    FARM  MECHANICS,  ENGINEERING,  AND  SHOP  WORK 

Topics   for  a  Survey  in  Farm  Mechanics. — The   following 
topics,  and  perhaps  others,  may  be   used  on   the  blanks  when 
making  a  survey  in  this  subject : 
Name.  Address. 

Number  in  household.  Size  of  septic  tank,  if  in. 

Kitchen  sink  and  drain,  or  not.  Bathroom  equipment,  or  not. 

Hot-water  system,  or  not.  Water-pressure  system,  or  not. 

Source  of  water  supply.  Best  possibility  for  water  system,  if 

Best  possibility  for  electric  lighting.  none  is  in. 

List  of  farm  buildings.  Farm  power  in  or  contemplated. 

Construction  of  size  of  silo.  Size  of  largest  barn. 

Materials  used  in  walks.  Concrete  floor  in  barn. 

Materials  and  condition  of  fences.  Kinds  of  roads. 

Any  tile  drainage.  Any  farm  terracing. 

General  condition  of  roofs.  Any  land  irrigation. 

Is  machinery  housed  and  cared  for?        Is  painting  needed? 
Value  of  farm  machinery.  Is  machinery  well  repaired? 

Name  and  size  of  tractor,  if  any.  Age  of  oldest  useful  machine. 

Aids  in  Teaching  Farm  Mechanics.1 — Sets  of  lantern  slides 
on  such  subjects  as  the  use  of  concrete  on  the  farm,  the  use  of 
power  on  the  farm,  the  uses  of  tractors,  manufacture  of  woven- 
wire  fencing,  plans  of  farm  buildings,  and  others  are  available,  or 
may  be  made. 

Charts  showing  the  structure  of  farm  buildings,  plans  of  farm 
buildings,  step  in  construction  of  silos  and  other  buildings,  belting 
and  shafting  systems  for  special  purposes  should  be  either  pur- 
chased or  made. 

Drawing  plans  of  buildings  to  be  erected  by  students  or  others 
in  the  community  is  good  practice  for  students. 

Make  clippings  from  catalogues  to  show  types  of  roofs,  shapes 
of  windows,  and  plans  of  floors.  Mount  these  on  large  cards  for  use 
in  class  work. 

Physics  a  Basis  for  Farm  Mechanics. — If  students  have  not 
made  a  study  of  physics  at  some  time  preceding  the  study  of 
farm  mechanics  and  engineering,  the  elementary  principles  in  those 
phases  of  physics  which  underlie  farm  mechanics  should  be  taught. 
In  rural  schools  this  may  be  very  simple  indeed.  In  high  schools 
and  colleges  the  curriculum  should  be  planned  to  allow  at  least  a 
short  period  of  instruction  in  physics  to  precede  the  application 
in  farm  mechanics. 

When  students  are  pursuing  farm  mechanics  chiefly  from  the 
standpoint  of  aid  for  other  project  work,  they  need  not  put  much 
stress  upon  the  principles  in  physics  which  underlie  the  problems  in 

1  See  also  Chapter  XVI. 


TRIPS  FOR  STUDYING  FARM   MECHANICS 


215 


farm  mechanics.  The  how  rather  than  the  why  is  then  uppermost 
in  the  students'  minds.  If  they  are  to  install  electric  apparatus 
without  having  studied  the  principles  and  science  of  electricity, 
they  will  be  required  to  follow  carefully  the  directions  for  instal- 
lation furnished  with  the  apparatus.  They  will  be  able  to  do  little 
electric  wiring  except  under  the  guidance  of  a  competent  instructor 
who  is  working  directly  with  them. 

Trips  for  Studying  Farm  Mechanics. — After  the  reports  from 
community  surveys  have  been  examined,  a  number  of  trips  can  be 


Fio.  94 


FIG.  96 


FIG   94  — Pit  silo  built  under  supervision  of  the  school.    Students  rendv  to  help  the  owner 

fill  it.     (E.  R.  Thompson,  Okla.) 

FIG.  95. — Students  should  learn  to  use  simple  leveling  instruments  and  practice  terracing  and 
draining  of  land.     (G.  S.  Boggar,  Ark.) 

planned  to  good  advantage  and  with  much  profit  to  the  class 
(Fig.  94).  Perhaps  one  trip  a  week  for  a  number  of  weeks  will  be 
profitable.  Suggestions  for  some  of  these  are  here  given : 

1.  Visit  a  farm  having  a  good  gasoline  engine  (Fig.  93),  where  a  number 
of  types  of  farm  machines  are  driven  by  it.    Study  the  belting,  countershafts 
and  systems  of  pulleys.    Many  problems  may  be  worked  out  in  such  a  place. 

2.  Visit  a  farm  where  a  hydraulic  ram  has  been  installed.    Study  the  work- 
ing of  the  ram.  Determine  the  fall  from  the  source  of  water  and  determine  the 
height  to  which  water  is  forced.    Note  the  sizes  of  pipes  used,  the  amount  of 
water  received  by  the  ram,  and  the  amount  delivered  from  it.    Study  the  water 
storage  in  connection  with  this  water  system.    Make  a  drawing  of  the  whole 
plan.     List  the  possibility  in  connection  with  a  system  where  water  may  be 
thrown  to  a  suitable  height,  as  with  a  ram. 

3.  Visit  other  interesting  water  systems  and  make  careful  studies  of  the 
details. 

4.  If  some  one  is  installing  bathroom  fixtures,  have  the  class  there  at  the 
time,  if  possible,  to  study  the  details  and  methods  used.     Make  drawings  to 
show  connections,  sizes  of  pipes,  ventilation  pipes,  gas  traps,  etc. 


216    FARM  MECHANICS,  ENGINEERING,  AND  SHOP  WORK 

5.  When  farmers  want  terracing  of  land,  drainage  of  land,  or  irrigation 
systems  surveyed  and  planned,  let  the  class,  if  it  needs  practice,  do  this  work 
for  the  fanner  (Fig.  95). 

6.  When  electric  wiring  is  !>eing  done  at  some  place,  let  all  the  members, 
or  those  most  interested,  visit  the  place  and  study  the  methods.    They  should 
make  drawings  of  the  wiring  system.    Show  sizes  of  wires  used,  the  location 
of  switches,  the  location  of  fuses,  the  openings  for  light,  power,  etc.    On  the 
same  trip  they  may  be  able  to  study  lighting  and  electric  power  systems. 

7.  When  a  septic  tank  is  to  be  constructed,  let  the  class  visit  the  place 
and  take  part  in  the  work.    The  inflow  and  outflow  pipes  should  be  planned 
and  constructed;  the  trap  or  traps  used  should  be  located;  the  drainage  pipe 
and  its  connection  with  the  house  fixtures  should  be  planned  and  drawn 
or  installed. 

8.  If  the  school  is  not  equipped  with  all  desired  types  of  machinery  to 
dismantle,  assemble,  and  adjust,  the  class  should  visit  places  where  suitable 
machines  for  this  work  may  be  used  (Fig.  90).    Perhaps  these  will  be  found  at 
farms  in  the  neighborhood.     Perhaps  a  better  place  will  be  on  assembling 
floors  of  some  implement  dealer.     Students  should  expect  to  work  diligently 
and  study  carefully  the  implements  they  are  working  with.    Good  machines 
for  such  practice  are  corn  harvesters,  grain  binders,  silo  fillers,  sprayers,  engines, 
tractors,  threshers,  grain  cleaners,  and  many  others.    Repairing  old  machines 
may  be  the  main  object  of  the  trip  if  it  is  to  a  farm  in  the  neighborhood. 

9.  If  suitable  places  may  be  found  within  easy  distance  of  travel,  the  class 
should  study  milling  machinery  of  various  kinds.     Flour  mills,  feed  mills, 
fertilizer  mills,  and  others  may  be  considered  in  this  group. 

10.  If  there  is  to  be  a  demonstration  in  the  region  of  the  use  of  tractors 
or  other  special  farm  machines,  the  school  should  attend  if  possible  (Fig.  97). 
Make  a  suitable  score  card  or  outline  for  use  in  such  study. 

11.  If  public  road  builders  or  other  gangs  of  men  with  engines  are  con- 
structing roads  within  reach  of  the  class,  they  should  make  a  lesson  of  this. 
They  can  actually  take  part  in  the  work  or  may  merely  take  note  of  materials 
used,  thickness  of  layer,  grade  of  road,  curve  of  surface,  weight  of  roller,  cost 
of  material,  labor  and  machinery. 

School  Shop  Work  Furnished  by  the  Community. — The  school 
should  be  a  center  for  many  kinds  of  shop  work  which  the  com- 
munity will  be  able  to  furnish.  The  instructor  should  not  agree  to 
have  the  school  do  all  of  the  shop  work  for  the  community,  but  he 
can  show  his  willingness  to  have  the  school  practice  on  machines, 
engines  and  other  equipment  furnished  by  the  farms  of  the  region. 
Many  lines  of  work  will  be  readily  found  or  perhaps  offered  freely 
to  the  school  for  this  purpose.  The  members  of  the  school  may 
thus  l>e  able  to  study  a  number  of  farm  implements  which  might 
otherwise  escape  their  attention.  If  possible,  let  every  phase  of 
farm  mechanics  come  in  for  work  in  this  way.  Drill  work  and 
skill  on  the  part  of  the  student  may  thus  be  secured  with  little 
outlay  by  the  school. 

If  necessary,  and  if  it  is  found  advisable  after  studying  the  local 
conditions,  the  instructor  and  class  may  decide  to  charge  a  small 
fee  for  repair  work  done  for  farmers  in  the  community.  Such  fees 


RURAL  SCHOOL  SHOP  WORK 


217 


should  be  recorded,  accounted  for,  and  used  in  the  maintenance  of 
the  shop,  or  in  buying  more  equipment  that  may  be  nwded.  After 
students  gain  enough  skill  they  may  work  on  large  buildings  of  the 
region  for  compensation  and  practice  (Fig.  98). 

Rural  School  Shop  Work. — In  rural  schools  rooms  for  shop 
work  are  sometimes  equipped  in  the  basement  of  the  building.  In 
other  cases  a  simple  wooden  building  is  erected  with  rough  lumber 


FIG.  96. — Student." 


should  learn  to  assemble  parts,  adjust,  and  otherwise  study  farm  machin- 
ery at  the  sales  places  of  dealers.     (I.  H.  Co.) 


and  provided  with  a  chimney  to  which  is  connected  a  stove  pipe 
and  perhaps  a  pipe  from  the  forge. 

Equipment  for  shop  work  in  rural  schools  may  be  much  more 
limited  than  the  list  given  earlier  in  this  chapter.  Perhaps  the 
shop  work  may  be  confined  to  wood  work,  in  which  case  the  cost  of 
the  equipment  is  much  less  than  when  both  metal  and  wood  work- 
ing tools  are  to  be  purchased.  If  the  shop  is  in  the  basement,  plans 
should  be  made  to  avoid  noises  which  will  disturb  the  school  classes 
above.  The  work  by  students  should  be  on  simple  problems  for  the 
farm.  They  should  make  things  which  are  not  too  large  to  haul 


218    FARM  MECHANICS,  ENGINEERING,  AND  SHOP  WORK 

or  carry  home  easily.  Do  not  have  them  work  on  exercises  merely 
for  the  sake  of  employing  their  time.  They  should  make  useful 
articles.  Many  of  the  things  already  suggested  in  this  chapter  may 
be  used  for  exercises  in  rural  schools.  Select,  if  possible,  those  which 
are  connected  with  the  home  projects  of  the  students  (Fig.  99). 


Flo.  07. — Students   in   farm    mechanics   should   become  familiar  with  the  farm  tractors  of 
the  vicinity  iinil  learn  how  to  operate  and  repair  them.     (J.  A.  Wisdom,  Mo.) 

Shop  Work  in  Town  Grades. — If  graded  schools  in  villages  and 
cities  are  equipped  to  do  simple  shop  work,  the  exercises  may  be 
confined  chiefly  to  wood  work  and  the  simple  forms  of  metal  work 
where  expensive  tools  are  not  required.  Exercises  with  rope  (Fig. 
86)  may  be  performed  to  good  advantage.  Students  may  make 
articles  which  are  closely  associated  with  their  lives  in  town  or  in 
surrounding  country.  Simple  articles  may  be  made  first:  Make 
bird  boxes  (Fig.  100),  plant  trays,  hotbeds,  chicken  coops,  and 


ASSIGN  READINGS  IN  FARM  MECHANICS  219 

any  articles  that  will  be  useful  on  the  premises  where  children  live. 
Some  concrete  work  may  be  offered  (Fig.  101).  Let  students  do 
the  mechanical  work  connected  with  their  home  projects.  For 
lists  of  these,  see  earlier  pages  of  this  chapter. 

Farm  Mechanics  for  Short-Course  Students. — As  many  of  the 
students  attending  agricultural  short  courses  are  usually  mature 
in  years,  they  should  not  be  expected  to  spend  much  time  in 
learning  fundamental  principles  underlying  the  exercises  upon  which 
they  are  to  work.  Let  the  time  be  spent  making  useful  things, 
particularly  of  a  character  which  will  naturally  appeal  to  students 
of  mature  years  such  as  hog  cots,  colony  houses,  repairing  farm 


FIG.  98. — If  such  a  residence  is  to  be  built,  the  high-school  students,  if  under  a  special  instructor, 
may  help  in  its  erection.     (W.  C.  Christensen,  Wis.,  and  S.  R.  S.,  U.  S.  D.  A.) 

machinery,  and  work  with  engines.  Let  the  particular  desires  of  the 
short-course  students  be  learned,  if  possible,  before  the  00111*86 
begins.  If  some  are  anxious  to  install  water  systems  for  their  home 
places,  they  should  be  taught  the  simple  methods  of  pipe  fitting, 
and  should  be  allowed  to  make  up  a  'list  of  materials  needed  for 
their  projects.  If  some  students  desire  to  do  some  terracing  work  on 
their  home  farms,  they  should  be  taught  the  methods  of  terracing 
while  at  the  school.  If  others  wish  to  build  septic  tanks  and  plan 
for  the  disposal  of  sewage,  they  may  easily  be  given  the  instruc- 
tion at  school. 

Assign  Readings  in  Farm  Mechanics. — An  instructor  should 
have  in  his  mind  or  on  library  reference  cards  a  number  of  useful 
topics  which  should  be  assigned  as  readings  for  individual  students. 
Suppose  a  student  is  planning  a  project  for  the  installation  of  a 


220    FARM  MECHANICS,  ENGINEERING,  AND  SHOP  WORK 

water  system  or  lighting  system,  or  a  sewage  system  for  his  home. 
Suitable  references  should  be  assigned  so  that  he  may  read  fully 
regarding  the  plans  and  suggestions  given  by  one  or  more  authors. 
Perhaps  a  bulletin  will  give  him  the  very  information  which  he  needs 


FIG.  99. — This  class  in  farm  shop  work  made  food  hoppers,  trestles,  pig  troughs,  tool  boxes, 
nail  boxes,  gates,  handles,  surveying  poles,  bag  holders,  and  other  articles.  (J.  A.  Wisdom-  Mo.) 

before  undertaking  his  project.  The  object  should  be  to  have  the 
student  feel  that  he  really  understands  the  difficulties  that  he  is 
likely  to  meet  and  something  of  how  to  solve  them  before  he  goes 
into  his  work.  He  will  feel  that  he  is  forearmed  and  will  be  able 


_ 


Flu.    100. — Each  boy  in  the  club  has  made  one  or  more  bird  houses.     These  boys  will  never 
destroy  beneficial  birds.     (W.  C.  Brown,  Mich.) 

to  exercise  bettor  judgment  when  unforeseen  difficulties  arise. 
He  has  the  experience  of  some  one  else  as  well  as  that  of  his 
instructor  to  guide  him.  Or  if  the  instructor  is  absent,  the  infor- 
mation which  he  has  gathered  from  reading  will  be  his  main  guide. 
Discoveries  in  Farm  Shop  Work. — When  students  are  operating 
or  repairing  farm  machinery  they  should  learn  to  discover  causes 
and  effects  of  certain  results  which  they  observe.  For  example,  in 


MECHANICAL  OBSERVATIONS  221 

operating  a  sulky-disk  plow  there  are  certain  adjustments  nec- 
essary to  make  the  disks  do  their  best  work.  When  certain  diffi- 
culties are  seen,  try  to  discover  the  causes  of  these.  In  operating 
a  binder,  if  an  apron  stops,  the  operator  should  discover  the  cause 
and  remedy  it  if  possible.  In  filling  a  silo,  if  the  blower  pipe  fills 
instead  of  delivering  the  silage  properly,  some  condition  must  be 
discovered  which  causes  the  trouble. 

Many  similar  discoveries  are  necessary  in  the  operation  of  farm 
engines,  in  the  problems  of  drainage,  in  troubles  with  sewage  and 
water  systems,  etc. 

Mechanical  Discussions.2 — Lead  students  to  form  habits  of 
discussing  with  the  instructor  the  details  of  mechanical  projects 


FIG.   101. — Students  of  the  upper  grades  as  well  as  hijfh-school  students  may  easily  learn  to 
make  concrete  posts,  and  an  incinerator  for  the  school. 

which  they  are  pursuing.  Even  if  these  projects  are  minor  ones 
they  will  furnish  many  important  points  which  should  be  brought 
up  before  the  class  for  consideration.  The  habit  of  taking  notes 
should  be  well  established.  This  will  avoid  forgetting  the  points 
which  are  to  be  discussed  in  the  class. 

Mechanical  Observations/ — How  many  points  there  are  to  be 
observed  in  shop  work  and  in  outdoor  mechanical  work!  Many  of 
these  observations  should  be  made.  Probably  the  best  way  to 
teach  students  to  make  the  observations  is  to  quiz  them  on  points 
which  they  are  likely  to  overlook  in  their  work.  When  a  student 
has  been  quizzed  and  found  unobserving,  he  may  be  aroused  to 
better  observation  in  the  future.  In  surveying  or  running  levels 

2  See  topics  for  debate,  Chapter  XI. 


222    FARM  MECHANICS,  ENGINEERING,  AND  SHOP  WORK 

the  student  may  be  led  to  form  approximate  ideas  in  differences 
of  level,  measures  of  angles,  distances,  or  grades. 

In  road  work  he  may  be  taught  that  he  should  observe  what 


Fiu.   102. 


FIG.  103. 


Fio.  102. — This  Alabama  class  laid  over  300  square  feet  of  concrete  flooring  in  the  basement 

of  the  school  building  for  practice.   Three  of  them  earned  money  during  their  spare  hours  at 

such  work  for  neighbors.     (H.  A.  Savage.) 

Flu.    103. — Students  have  practice  in  grading  lawns  and  in  building  walks  for  the  school. 
(Newport  School,  Tenn.) 

curves  are  necessary,  what  angles  may  be  avoided,  what  cutting  or 
filling  will  be  required  before  the  road  implements  are  actually  used. 


FlG.  1()4. — Students  should  learn  the  value  of  second-hand  lumber.   Left,  pulling  out  nails. 
Right,  lumber  ready  to  erect  a  shop.     (G.  R.  Ransom,  Okla.) 

Mechanical  Drills  for  Skill. — Students  performing  certain  shop 
exercises  may  be  found  to  be  very  awkward  or  bunglesome  and 
perhaps  unsuccessful  in  their  work.  In  such  cases  they  should  be 
given  other  exercises  which  will  develop  them  in  those  particulars 
in  which  they  are  having  trouble.  This  repetition  of  work  may  be 
given  to  the  student  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  make  him  feel  that 


SOLVING  MECHANICAL  PROBLEMS 


223 


he  is  being  drilled  for  the  sake  of  skill  (Figs.  102  and  103).  There 
may  be  some  other  apparent  motive  in  the  second  or  third  assign- 
ment. For  example,  if  a  student  has  trouble  in  tapping  threads  in 
drill  holes  and  cuts  them  too  deep  or  too  shallow,  it  will  be  easy  to 
let  him  try  again  on  some  other  part  of  the  repair  of  a  machine. 
Never  allow  students  to  form  bad  habits  of  doing  poor  work  in  any 
department  of  mechanics.  The  quality  of  work  should  be  judged 
in  comparison  with  similar  work  by  good  mechanics.  Another 
example  is  in  the  sawing  of  rafters  when  poor  joints  are  formed  by 


FIG.   105. — Students  studying  the  belting  system,   diameters  of  pulleys,  speeds  of 
engine  and  machine,  and  other  points  on  a  nearby  farm.     (Fairbanks-Morse  Co.) 

careless  students.  If  the  student  cannot  hold  his  miter-square 
accurately  or  cannot  saw  to  a  mark,  he  should  be  given  drill  enough 
in  such  work  as  the  building  proceeds  to  make  him  skilful  in  these 
matters.  Students  should  be  taught  skill  in  handling  and  using  old 
lumber  (Fig.  104). 

In  splicing  ropes  (Fig.  86),  if  the  results  are  not  smooth  and 
even,  the  students  may  be  given  other  problems  with  other  sizes 
of  rope  that  will  involve  more  attention  to  snug  twisting  and  care- 
ful laying  of  the  parts  of  the  rope. 

Solving  Mechanical  Problems. — Earlier  in  this  chapter  sev- 
eral problems  have  been  suggested  in  figuring  speeds  of  machines 
run  by  engines  (Fig.  105).  Problems  in  figuring  the  amount  of 


224    FARM  MECHANICS,  ENGINEERING,  AND  SHOP  WORK 

paint  required  for  covering  a  building  for  first  or  second  coats 
mav  be  given.    Students  should  be  required  to  make  lists  of  lum- 

Fia.  100.  Fio.  107. 


FIG.   108. 

Fios.    lOTi-lOS. — Tho  erection  of  a  school  shop  by  students  of  a  consolidated  school.  Fig.  10S, 
mixing  concrete  for  foundation;  Fig.  107,  framing;  Fig.  10S,  building  completed.     (Lewiston, 

-Minn.) 

ber  of  different  sizes  and  dimensions  for  specific  building  projects. 
Many    problems    arise    in    connection    with    land    drainage, 


REFERENCE  BOOKS  AND  BULLETINS 


225 


road    construction,  terracing,   subdivision    of    lands    into    fields, 
and  irrigation. 

Reference  Books  and  Bulletins.3 — There  are  good  books  which 
should  be  in  the  library  of  schools  offering  courses  in  farm  mechanics 


Fia.   109. 


FIG.  110. 


FIG.  109. — The  pig-cot  and  seed  corn  tree  may  be  made  by  students  as  parts  of  their  projects 

with  pigs  and  seed  corn.   (D.  M.  Clements,  Teuii.) 

Fia.  110. — In  his  pig  project  this  Wisconsin   boy  made  the  pig  house  of    the   piano   box. 
(W.  C.  Christensen  and  S.  R.  S.,  U.  S.  D.  A.) 

and  engineering.  Have  special  books  on  farm  motors;  books  re- 
lating to  lighting  systems;  others  on  water  systems;  and  others  on 
sanitation  and  drainage;  books  on  farm  structures,  some  of  which 
give  plans  of  all  kinds  of  buildings;  books  on  concrete  work; 


FIG.    111. — t'seful  articles  for  the  farm  made  by  the  students  in  the  school  shop. 
(A.  M.  Field,  Minn.) 

special   works  on    drainage,    irrigation,    road    construction,    land 
surveying,  and  other  special  lines. 

It  is  to  such  special  works  of  reference  that  the  instructor  will 
send  students  who  arc  looking  up  readings  on  their  home  proj- 
ects. Instructors  fully  realize  the  value  of  such  specialized  books 
of  reference.  No  textbook  can  possibly  fill  the  need  of  students 

3  See  also  Chapter  XVII. 
15 


226    FARM  MECHANICS,  ENGINEERING,  AND  SHOP  WORK 

requiring  full  information  on  problems  and  projects  which  they 
are  undertaking. 

Bulletins  issued  by  the  federal  government,  by  state  experi- 
ment stations,  and  by  private  companies  are  usually  supplied 
freely  to  schools  requesting  them.  Cement  companies  issue  val- 
uable bulletins  on  the  uses  of  cement.  Details  of  barn  plans  are 
found  in  bulletins  furnished  by  companies  selling  barn  equipment. 
Such  pamphlets  should  be  accumulated  by  the  school  and  kept  on 
the  reference  shelves  for  constant  use. 

Mechanical  journals  are  published  periodically,  and  a  few  of 
these  may  be  on  the  reading  tables  of  colleges,  normal  schools,  and 
perhaps  high  schools  offering  work  in  this  subject. 

Engineering  journals,  electrical  magazines,  scientific  and  popu- 
lar papers  of  a  mechanical  nature  are  worthy  of  consideration  for 
this  purpose.  EXERCISES 

1.  Plan  a  good,  inexpensive  shop  building  for  the  teaching  of  farm  shop 
work  (Figs.  106T108). 

2.  Make  a  list  of  material  for  the  construction  of  this  building,  with  prices. 

3.  Form   an  estimate  of  the  number  of  days  it  would  require  for  ten 
students  to  erect  this  building,  and  decide  whether,  or  not,  you  would  advise 
them  to  undertake  it. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  tools  and  equipment  you  would  place  in  such  a  building, 
with  price  of  each. 

5.  Outline  fully  an  extended  project  in  mechanics  connected  with  poul- 
try work. 

6.  The  same  for  a  project  connected  with  dairy  work. 

7.  The  same  for  a  project  connected  with  sheep  and  beef-cattle  work. 

8.  The  same  for  a  project  connected  with  sheep  and  swine  growing  (Figs. 
109,  110,  and  111). 

9.  The  same  for  a  project  connected  with  farm  improvement. 

10.  Conduct  a  community  survey  regarding  farm   buildings   and  equip- 
ment in  a  small  neighborhood. 

11.  Another  on  modern  farm  machinery. 

12.  Another  on  tile  draining  and  terracing,  or  the  need  for  either  of  these. 

13.  Conduct  a  trip  with  fellow-students,  or  others,  for  a  farm  mechanics 
study  at  a  good  place  in  the  neighborhood  (Fig.  96). 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  a  comprehensive  outline  of  the  fields  to  be  covered  by  a  course  iH 

farm  mechanics  and  engineering. 

2.  Give  suggestions  for  special  methods  in  teaching  this  course. 

3.  ^Vhat  equipment  would  you  want  for  teaching  farm  power  work? 

4.  Why  should  the  class  work  in  farm  mechanics  consist  chiefly  of  laboratory 

work? 

5.  How  would  you  plan  to  base  the  class  work  on  the  laboratory  work? 

6.  Why  would  you  base  the  laboratory  work  and  home  project  work,  in  this 

field,  on  the  other  agricultural  projects  of  the  students? 

7.  Illustrate  how  you  would  do  this  in  each  of  the  kinds  of  agricultural 

projects. 


REFERENCES  227 

8.  Suggest  a  number  of  exorcises  with  farm  power. 

9.  Give  reasons  why  community  survey  in  farm  mechanics  are  helpful. 

10.  Give  a  list  of  topics  for  such  a  survey. 

11.  How  could  you  use  a  set  of  lantern  slides  to  advantage  in  teaching  farm 

mechanics? 

12.  What  benefit  is  derived  from  students  drawing  plans  for  farm  buildings? 

13.  Why  is  the  study  of  physics  helpful  in  a  course  in  farm  mechanics? 

14.  Give  a  list  of  suitable  trips  which  you  might  make  with  your  class  in 

this  course? 

15.  How  could  school  shop  work  be  of  aid  to  the  community? 

16.  Give  suggestions  for  teaching  shop  work  in  rural  schools. 

17.  In  what  fields  should  a  teacher  of  agriculture  be  proficient  to  teach  farm 

mechanics  successfully? 

18.  Suggest  a  list  of  exercises  for  shop  work  in  town  grades. 

19.  What  would  be  suitable  lines  of  farm  mechanics  for  short-course  students? 

20.  Suggest  reading  assignments  in  farm  mechanics. 

21.  Suggest  several  subjects  for  debate  in  this  field. 

22.  What  observations  can  you  suggest  that  students  should  make  in  this  field? 

23.  What  lines  require  considerable  drill  to  secure  the  proper  skill  in  shop  work? 

24.  Make  a  list  of  mechanical  problems  to  be  solved  by  students. 

25.  What  reference  books  would  you  include,  in  this  field,  in  a  high  school 

library? 

REFERENCES 

Farm  drainage,  Minn.  Ext.  Bui.  13;  Rope  work,  Minn.  Ext.  Bui.  33;  and 
Minn.  Bui.  13G  (15  cents);  Cornell  reading  course,  Bui.,  Vol.  1,  No.  8;  Iowa 
Ext.  Bui.  24. 


CHAPTER  XI 
HOW  TO  TEACH  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

"The  specific  aim  of  the  work  in  Farm  Management  is  to  enable  young 
people  to  obtain  such  a  knowledge  of  sound  principles  and  correct  practices 
essential  in  the  proper  selection,  organization,  equipment,  and  operation  of  a 
fiinn  as  a  business  enterprise  as  will  prepare  them  for  financial  success  in  farm- 
ing."— Report  of  Committee  on  Agriculture  of  the  N.  E.  A.  Commission  on 
Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education. 

THE  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  aid  teachers  so  to  teach 
farm  management  as  to  accomplish  most  effectively  the  above  aims. 
Chapters  V  to  X,  and  XII  treat  of  the  methods  of  teaching  subject 
matter  so  that  students  may  pursue  farming  operations  with  greater 
profit.  Many  features  of  farm  management  are  therefore  presented 
in  those  chapters.  Persons  using  this  book  will  find  there  many 
suggestions,  in  addition  to  those  given  in  this  chapter,  that  will  be 
helpful  in  the  teaching  of  farm  management. 

Content  of  Farm  Management.- — In  the  subject  of  farm  man- 
agement should  be  included  the  study  of  the  types  of  farming, 
comparison  between  intensive  and  extensive  methods,  diversified 
and  special  methods.  It  must  be  concerned  with  the  maintenance 
of  soil  fertility,  livestock  problems,  suitability  of  farm  operations 
to  soil,  climate,  and  market  conditions.  It  must  include  a  study 
of  the  relationship  between  size  of  farm,  capital  available,  and 
projects  undertaken.  The  questions  of  ownership,  rental,  employ- 
ment of  labor,  securing  equipment,  arrangement  and  cost  of  build- 
ings, and  the  planning  of  cropping  systems  are  all  included.  The 
business  of  farming — farm  records  and  accounts  and  the  selling 
of  products — is  an  important  department  of  farm  management. 
How  to  secure  good  roads  over  which  to  travel  and  market  farm 
products  is  vitally  connected  with  farm  management  (Fig.  112). 

Special  Methods  in  Farm  Management. — While  methods  of 
conducting  the  class  meeting  do  not  differ  in  farm  management 
from  the  methods  used  in  other  subjects,  attention  should  be  called 
to  a  few  features  relating  to  the  subject  matter  and  its  treatment 
which  need  special  emphasis. 

Farm  management,  dealing  as  it  does  with  the  proper  com- 
bination of  all  of  the  farming  operations  considered  in  the  preceding 
chapters,  is  more  dependent  than  is  any  of  them  upon  local  data 
if  its  teachings  are  to  function  in  the  farming  of  the  future.  Agron- 
228 


CLASS  WORK  IN  FARM   MANAGEMENT  229 

omy  may  teach  how  to  raise  an  abundant  crop,  but  farm  manage- 
ment may  show  that,  regardless  of  abundance  of  yield,  such  a  crop 
should  not  be  grown  in  that  locality.  To  know  how  to  raise  good 
crops  and  animals  is  necessary  but  not  sufficient.  To  know  how 
to  make  a  profit  from  the  entire  complex  of  fanning  operations 
under  local  conditions  is  essential  and  is  the  cornerstone  for  the 
teaching  of  farm  management. 

The  teacher  must  have  available  not  only  the  data  gathered  by 
the  office  of  Farm  Management  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture and  by  the  state  colleges  of  agriculture  of  such  states  as 
Minnesota  and  New  York  which  may  be  used  as  general  founda- 
tions, but  should  have  the  data  gathered  by  his  own  state  college  of 
agriculture  and  by  any  other  state  institutions,  such  as  normal 
schools.  If  the  teacher  has  done  the  work  of  the  preceding  chapters, 
he  will  have  the  results  of  many  surveys  made  by  himself  and  his 
pupils  which  he  has  used  as  a  part  of  the  work  of  those  chapters. 
In  addition  to  the  use  made  of  them  there  they  may  be  utilized 
with  new  values  in  the  farm  management  studies.  Besides  these, 
additional  local  surveys  supplementary  thereto  should  be  made  by 
the  farm  management  class. 

Not  only  must  students  use  a  large  amount  of  data  much  of 
which  is  local  but  they  must  know  how  to  use  it.  This  requires 
a  clear  knowledge  of  the  fundamentals  of  bookkeeping  and  of  the 
methods  of  using  simple  statistics.  Unless  the  pupils  have  had  this 
training  previously  it  must  be  given  in  the  farm  management  class. 

There  are  a  few  good  textbooks  on  farm  management  suitable 
for  secondary  schools,  normal  schools,  and  colleges  which  may  be 
used  as  guides  and  references ;  but  the  teacher  who  permits  his  farm 
management  work  to  degenerate  into  a  mere  study  of  books  is  not 
only  losing  his  opportunity  but  is  also  cheating  his  pupils  out  of 
their  birthright — a  practical  knowledge  of  how  to  manage  success- 
full}'  farm  operations  in  that  locality. 

Class  Work  in  Farm  Management. — Let  students  prepare 
topics  for  class  recitation  which  are  broad  and  exhaustive 
rather  than  mere  opinions  or  one-sided  discussions  of  the  different 
phases  of  farm  management.  For  example,  good  topics  at  the 
beginning  of  the  course  are:  (1)  The  farmer  as  a  business  man.  (2) 
The  farmer  as  a  scientist.  (3)  The  farmer  as  a  mechanic.  (4)  The 
farm  a  place  for  efficiency.  (5)  What  the  farmer  needs  to  know. 

Early  in  the  course  let  some  student  contrast  the  cost  of  living 
on  a  farm  with  the  cost  in  a  city.  Let  another  stud}'  and  report 


230 


HOW  TO  TEACH  FARM  MANAGEMENT 


on  the  profits  in  fanning;  another  on  the  safety  of  investment  in 
farm  lands;  another,  the  estates  left  by  farmers  to  their  children. 
Such  topics  will  aid  the  young  student  in  deciding  more  definitely 
that  he  will  be  a  fanner. 

Topics  may  be  assigned  that  will  aid  students  in  determining 
the  types  of  farming  which  they  will  prefer  to  follow.  The  in- 
structor can,  by  careful  thought,  select  such  topics  in  farm  man- 
agement as  will  help  the  student  to  be  a  better  farm  manager.  He 
should  strive  to  make  the  topics  suit  the  conditions  of  the  young 


Fio.   112. — The  condition  of  the  roarls  greatly  affects  the  number  of  visits  by  the  instructor 
to  home  projects.    There  are  too  many  roads  like  the  one  shown  here.     (C.  D.  Clements.) 

students  in  his  class.  Let  abstract  principles  be  omitted  unless 
applications  of  them  can  be  found  by  which  to  make  them  real 
to  the  students'  minds.  Whenever  topics  including  principles  in 
farm  management  are  assigned,  the  student  should  be  required  to 
find  an  example  in  the  neighborhood  or  elsewhere  in  his  observation 
or  experience  which  will  illustrate  or  impress  the  principles  learned. 
These  examples  should  be  given  in  class  recitations  so  that  all 
members  of  the  class  will  realize  their  bearing  upon  real  life  and 
actual  fanning. 

For  example,  in  the  study  of  intensive  and  extensive  farming 
examples  of  both  should  be  constantly  before  the  minds  of  the 
students.  In  the  study  of  ways  of  farming  with  small  capital 


LABORATORY  WORK  IN  FABM  MANAGEMENT         231 

apply  the  study  to  the  lives  of  the  students  in  the  class.  Let  each 
tell  how  certain  young  people  have  started  into  farming  for  them- 
selves. Let  them  plan  different  ways  by  which  meml>ers  of  the 
present  class  may  themselves  start  into  the  business  of  farming.  In 
the  study  of  the  farm  labor  problem  let  students  descrita  men  who 
have  worked  on  their  farms,  wages  received,  ideals  and  ambitions 
of  these  men,  hours  of  labor,  methods  of  managing  the  men,  scheme 
used  on  their  own  farms  for  the  efficient  use  of  farm  hands  on  stormy 
days,  the  ways  of  making  farm  laborers  contented  and  making  them 
interested  in  their  work. 

A  good  class  exercise  when  the  subject  of  horse  labor  is  up 
would  be  for  each  member  of  the  class  to  make  a  report  of  the 
number  of  days  their  horses  work  on  their  own  farms  in  a  year. 
Let  them  report  on  the  cost  of  keeping  horses  when  idle.  Let  the 
most  efficient  cases  and  the  most  wasteful  cases  be  contrasted 
with  each  other  when  reports  are  made. 

When  the  relation  of  farm  equipment  to  type  of  farming  and 
size  of  farm  are  under  consideration,  let  each  student  make  a 
list  of  the  machinery  equipment  on  his  home  place,  with  the  value 
of  the  same.  These  lists  may  be  contrasted  in  class  and  will  form 
a  basis  for  practical  discussion.  Let  the  lengths  of  life  of  the 
machines  of  each  kind  be  compared,  and  find  causes  for  difference. 

Make  many  problems  for  students  to  solve,  and  report  the 
results  in  class.  Base  these  problems  on  the  experience  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  class.  Make  problems  on  factors  that  affect  farm 
profits;  on  farm  improvements;  on  waste  in  farming;  on  soil  manage- 
ment; on  farm  planning,  and  many  other  phases  of  the  subject. 

Laboratory  Work  in  Farm  Management. — Let  students  make 
plans  of  farmsteads  showing  the  arrangement  of  buildings,  wells, 
roads,  walks,  and  fence  lines.  Distances  should  be  shown,  or  the 
drawings  may  be  made  to  appropriate  scales.  Let  the  students 
draw  their  own  farmsteads  first ;  later  others  may  be  drawn,  as  those 
of  neighbors.  After  these  are  drawn  as  they  really  exist,  the  stu- 
dent should  study  the  rearrangement,  and  after  planning  he  should 
redraw  the  same  farmsteads  showing  better  arrangements,  with  the 
least  possible  cost  for  the  changes  suggested.  Let  each  strive  to 
make  plans  that  will  save  steps  in  the  daily  work  of  the  farm. 
Let  the  elements  of  risk  from  fire  be  also  taken  into  consideration. 

Let  students  draw  plans  showing  the  actual  size  and  location 
of  the  fences  and  fields  of  their  own  farms  and  perhaps  those  on 
neighboring  farms  (Fig.  113).  The  crops  grown  and  the  rotations 


HOW  TO  TEACH  FARM  MANAGEMENT 


practiced  on  these  farms  should  be  indicated  on  the  drawings. 
Study  the  arrangement  of  fields  with  reference  to  the  location  of 
the  barns  and  residences.  Consider  the  distances  for  going  to  and 
from  fields  with  crops,  manure,  and  for  the  annual  field  labor.  Con- 
sider the  shapes  of  fields  and  calculate  the  cost  of  plowing  fields 
of  different  shapes.  After  sufficient  study  is  given  to  the  farm  as 
it  is,  let  it  be  replanned  and  redrawn  to  remove  as  many  of  the 


FIELD  I 
tOA 


8 
8A 


5 
12A 


2 
13A 


3 
17A 


6 
5A 


4 
25A 


7 
1OA 


FIELD  1 


20  A 


20  A 


o 
5A 

FARMSTEAD 


15    A 


20  A 


4 

20    A 


FIG.    113. — How  students  make  plans  of  their  own  farms  or  the  farms  of  neighbors. 
(Cromwtll't  "Agriculture  and  Life.") 

losses  as  possible.  Let  the  shapes  of  the  fields  and  the  location  of 
the  fields  be  changed  to  agree  with  the  best  teachings  of  farm 
management  (Fig.  113). 

Try  laboratory  experiments  to  prove  the  efficiency  of  paint  in 
preventing  rust,  corrosion,  and  rotting  of  various  metal  and  wood 
surfaces.  Try  laboratory  experiments  to  demonstrate  the  impor- 
tance of  using  green  manure  in  the  maintenance  of  soil  fertility. 
Other  experiments  to  demonstrate  the  losses  from  leaching,  from 
erosion,  from  burning  of  organic  matter,  from  bad  management  of 
the  farm  manure  crop,  from  wasting  wood  ashes,  from  misuse  of 
commercial  fertilizer,  and  other  bad  management  regarding  soils. 


Fio.  114.— Make  a  community  map.  <>nl;ircod  from  a  county  map  or  R  F  D  map  hv  the 
process  of  drawing  squares  shown  in  the  lower  part  of  this  figure  Locate  houses  schools 
churches,  roads,  places  visited  by  class,  pupils'  houses,  points  of  apricultural  interest,  and 


streams.     (Albert  Barnett,  S.  C.) 


234  HOW  TO  TEACH  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

Plan  laboratory  exercises  in  the  use  of  business  forms,  including 
notes,  checks,  receipts,  contracts,  mortgages,  insurance  papers, 
leases  and  deeds.  Have  exercises  in  the  use  of  card  indexing  of 
addresses  for  use  in  selling  pure-bred  stock  by  mail. 

Have  students  practice  the  making  of  applications  for  regis- 
tration of  pure-bred  stock  of  all  kinds.  Let  all  students  have 
practice  in  keeping  records  of  litters  of  pure-bred  swine,  records 
of  pure-bred  cattle  and  sheep.  Let  them  become  familiar  by  act- 
ual practice  with  the  records  and  blanks  required  for  use  in  reg- 
istry of  merit  work.  Let  students  have  practice  in  keeping  milk 
records  and  calculating  incomes  when  weights  and  butter-fat 
tests  are  known.  They  should  make  graphs  showing  the  production 
requirements  for  profit  of  members  of  a  dairy  herd.  Let  the  pro- 
duction of  each  member  of  the  herd  be  shown  in  graphic  form. 
The  production  of  each  animal  should  be  compared  by  them  with 
the  minimum  profit  line. 

Have  students  learn  to  keep  egg  records,  incubator  records, 
brooder  records,  and  other  poultry  records. 

The  laboratory  work  should  give  students  practice  in  cost 
accounting  which  should  be  based  upon  the  actual  farming  on  the 
students'  home  farm.  If  students  are  pursuing  projects  in  crop 
production  and  animal  production  for  profit,  they  should  make 
these  projects  the  basis  of  their  laboratory  practice  in  bookkeeping. 
Their  fathers'  projects  with  various  crops  and  herds  may  also  be 
used.  Let  the  simplest  methods  in  record  keeping  be  taught  and 
practiced  by  students. 

Let  each  student  get  a  copy  of  the  land  description  from  the 
deed  of  his  home  place.  This  can  be  obtained  at  the  recorder's 
office  in  the  county  seat,  or  the  deed  may  be  found  a-t  home  and 
that  portion  copied  for  use  in  the  laboratory.  Let  the  student 
make  a  drawing  of  the  boundaries  of  the  farm  from  this  land 
description.  In  those  states  or  regions  where  farms  are  described 
by  the  system  known  as  "meets  and  bounds"  this  exercise  is  often 
a  difficult  one  and  should  be  given  careful  attention.  In  states 
where  the  land  descriptions  are  made  according  to  the  Congressional 
system,  the  students  should  learn  to  describe  their  own  farms 
by  this  system.  A  map  showing  the  principal  meridians  and  the 
ranges  or  base  for  the  region  should  be  secured  by  the  school 
for  use  of  the  students  (Fig.  114). 

Special  forms  and  systems  to  be  studied  by  students  in  the 
farm  lal>onitory  should  be  selected  by  the  instructor  according 


FIELD  EXERCISES  IN  FARM  MANAGEMENT  235 

to  the  special  industries  of  the  region.  Some  of  these  may  be: 
Keeping  records  of  pickers  in  berry  patches,  keeping  records  of 
men  in  gathering  truck  crops  or  field  crops,  keeping  time-books  and 
pay-rolls  on  large  plantations,  keeping  records  of  the  work  of 
packers  of  fruit,  the  packers  of  eggs,  the  picking  and  dressing 
of  broilers. 

Field  Exercises  in  Farm  Management. — It  has  already  been 
suggested  that  the  farming  methods  found  in  the  region  be  analyzed 
as  a  basis  for  the  studies  in  farm  management.  In  the  fall,  when 
the  farmers  are  harvesting  and  storing  crops,  let  the  class  go  to 
a  fruit  farm,  for  example,  and  study  the  management  of  labor,  the 
methods  of  transporting  products  to  market,  the  prices  received, 


Courtesy  Planet  Jr.  Company. 


FIG.  115. — Students  should  visit  farms  heavily  equipped  with  machines  and  work-horses 
and  study  the  relation  between  the  capital  invested  in  them  and  the  total  capital  and  income. 
Also  make  a  graph  of  the  horse  labor  distributed  by  months.  (Productive  Farm  Crops.) 

and  find  in  what  ways  any  of  these  methods  could  be  improved. 
Perhaps  several  farms  of  the  same  character  can  be  studied  and 
comparison  made  by  members  of  the  class.  At  each  place  inquiry 
can  be  made  regarding  the  different  items  which  make  up  the  cost 
of  production.  The  probable  profits  from  each  enterprise  can 
thus  be  approximated. 

Students  should  visit  large  plantations  (Fig.  115)  or  smaller 
farms  that  are  supposed  to  be  operated  according  to  the  best 
-business  methods.  Let  them  find  the  best  points  and  the  weak 
;ones  in  the  management  (Figs.  116  and  117).  These  should  be  com- 
pared with  other  farming  methods  of  the  region.  Different  types  of 
.farming  should  be  included,  if  possible,  in  the  visits  of  the  class. 


236 


HOW  TO  TEACH  FARM   MANAGEMENT 


If  there  is  a  marketing  association  of  any  kind  in  the  region, 
students  should  make  a  detailed  study  of  the  work  of  the  business 
manager,  learn  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  members,  deter- 


FIG.   110. — Tractor  PS.  six  horses.     One  stall  instead  of  six;  tractor  does  not  eat  when  not 

working;  no  harness  to  buy;  no  horse  chores  to  do.     The  twenty-five  or  thirty  acres  renuired 

to  feed  six  horses  will  feed  as  many  dairy  cows,  producing  human  food.     At  this  student's 

farm  the  horse  is  gone.     (Cleveland  Tractor  Co.) 


Fid.  117. — Students  must  he  taught  to  solve  the  problem  of  what  kind  of  work  animals 
are  best  suited  to  the  farm.  Cattle  are  still  useful  for  this  purpose  on  many  farms  that  are 
etumpy,  hilly,  or  rocky;  and  where  grass  is  abundant  they  are  maintained  economically. 

mine  the  advantages  of  the  association,  and  discover,  if  possible,  any 
dangers  which  arc  likely  to  arise  by  marketing  or  selling  fruit  to 
such  an  association.  I^earn  how  buyers  are  secured  and  contrast 
the  prices  received  by  this  method  and  other  methods  of  selling. 


FARM  MANAGEMENT  SURVEYS  237 

Excursions  should  be  taken  to  nearby  market  places  to  study 
different  methods  of  preparing  products  for  market,  to  study  the 
details  of  selling  to  commission  men,  selling  direct  to  consumers, 
and  selling  to  wholesale  dealers. 

In  regions  where  warehouses  or  elevators  are  used  by  farmers 
or  by  buyers,  the  class  should  visit  them  and  study  the  methods  of 
storage,  the  methods  of  receiving,  weighing,  price-fixing,  and  other 
details.  In  tobacco  regions  where  there  are  loose-leaf  floors 
or  storage  warehouses,  the  student  should  visit  them  on  market 
days  to  learn  many  details  of  the  business. 

In  creamery  regions  let  the  details  of  the  business  of  operation 
of  private  or  cooperative  concerns  be  studied  minutely. 

The  management  of  poultry  packing  plants  should  be  studied 
by  visits  to  these  places.  If  there  are  important  stock  yards  within 
reach,  trips  should  be  taken  to  them  on  the  best  market  days  and 
details  of  management  should  be  studied  and  noted  by  every 
student.  Let  them  follow  one  bunch  of  cattle  or  a  lot  of  hogs  and 
sheep  from  the  car  through  the  yards  during  the  weighing  and 
buying  by  the  dealers,  through  the  regrading  and  sorting  of  the 
animals,  through  the  reselling  and  distribution  of  these.  Prices, 
commissions,  weighing  fees,  dockages,  etc.,  should  all  be  learned 
by  all  the  class. 

It  will  pay  for  the  class  to  visit  a  packing  house  where  live- 
stock are  slaughtered  and  dressed.  They  should  learn  the  methods 
of  inspection  by  federal  authorities.  They  should  learn  the  different 
cuts  of  meats  produced  by  this  packing  plant.  Find  what  criti- 
cisms the  owners  or  managers  may  have  regarding  the  classes 
of  animals  which  they  are  compelled  to  use. 

Management  of  Other  Farm  Details. — On  various  farms  and  on 
suitable  occasions  the  students  should  learn  the  management  of 
labor  of  men  and  teams,  economy  in  making  the  best  use  of  impor- 
tant farm  machinery,  care  of  farm  machinery.  They  may  study 
other  important  details  in  the  chief  fanning  operations,  such  as 
threshing  the  grain  crop,  filling  of  silos,  husking  and  shredding  the 
corn  crop,  harvesting  and  curing  a  tobacco  crop,  picking  and  pack- 
ing an  apple  crop  or  peach  crop,  constructing  roads  or  im- 
portant farm  buildings,  and  any  other  important  farm  operations 
which  may  be  found. 

Farm  Management  Surveys.— Early  in  the  course,  or  before  it 
begins,  special  farm  management  surveys  may  be  made.  Let  one 
special  line  of  farming  be  taken  at  a  time.  The  questions  should 


238  HOW  TO  TEACH  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

bo  so  worded  as  not  to  offend  the  farmers  who  are  asked  to  answer 
them.  Each  survey  should  be  as  brief  as  is  consistent  with 
pood  results. 

If  the  surveys  regarding  each  line  of  farming  have  been  made 
in  connection  with  the  study  of  that  branch  earlier  in  the  course, 
perhaps  the  answers  can  be  studied  by  the  class  and  the  manage- 
ment features  gleaned  from  them.  After  going  over  the  early  sur- 
veys on  the  special  subjects,  it  may  be  found  that  a  few  additional 
points  of  information  should  be  gathered.  In  that  case  perhaps  the 
students  will  be  able  to  answer  the  questions  themselves  without 
consulting  the  farmers  of  the  region.  Let  the  additional  questions 
be  made  and  answered  either  by  the  students  or  by  the  farmers.1 

Take  the  subject  of  dairying,  for  example;  the  special  dairy 
survey  suggested  in  another  chapter  will  bring  out  many  of  the 
methods  in  management.  It  may  be  desirable  to  ask  each  dairy- 
man of  the  region  regarding  the  prices  received  for  products  in 
various  months  of  the  year.  The  methods  of  marketing  products 
may  be  asked.  The  kinds  of  accounts  kept  by  each  dairyman  may 
be  included  in  the  dairy  management  survey.  Questions  could  be 
asked  regarding  their  attitude  toward  cooperative  marketing, 
toward  price  fixing,  toward  cooperative  buying  of  feeds,  and  other 
points  which  the  instructor  may  wish  to  include  because  of  certain 
local  conditions. 

Charts  on  Farm  Management.2 — A  number  of  valuable  charts 
can  be  made  from  illustrations  in  bulletins  and  reference  books  on 
this  subject.  Valuable  suggestions  for  farm  management  charts  are 
often  found  in  periodicals.  Perhaps  some  of  these  may  need  to  be 
modified  to  suit  local  conditions.  Let  the  results  of  local  sur- 
veys l>e  formulated  into  charts  without  being  personal. 

Farm  management  charts  should  be  useful  in  class  work  and 
in  community  work  in  the  region.  Some  of  the  drawings  of  farm- 
steads or  of  farm  fields,  with  the  replanning  of  these,  may  be  made 
into  large  charts  for  use  in  these  ways  (Fig.  113).  Forms  to 
be  used  in  record  keeping  may  be  placed  on  large  charts. 

Lantern  Slides  on  Farm  Management.2 — A  number  of  photo- 
graphs may  be  taken  by  the  instructor  or  members  of  the  class  on 
their  field  trips.  These  may  be  made  into  lantern  slides  and  used 
from  time  to  time  in  class  work  or  in  community  work.  Other 
lantern  slides  which  relate  to  the  general  subject  of  farm  manage- 

1  Sec  suggestions  for  farm  surveys,  Chapters  V  to  X,  and  XII. 

2  See  also  Chapter  XVI. 


FARM  MANAGEMENT  IN  SHORT  COURSES  239 

ment  may  be  secured  from  supply  houses.  The  subject  is  so  broad 
that  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  select  a  good  series  of  lantern  slides 
best  for  any  special  meeting  where  the  topic  is  to  be  discussed.  It 
is  far  easier  to  arrange  the  slides  according  to  the  management  of 
any  particular  line  of  farming.  Sometimes  it  may  l>e  desirable  to 
select  a  few  slides  on  each  of  the  types  of  farming. 

Many  sets  of  slides  may  be  borrowed.  A  number  of  slides 
touching  upon  various  phases  of  farm  management  may  be  easily 
chosen  for  illustrating  special  points  in  this  subject. 

Farm  Management  in  Rural  Schools. — Much  of  what  has  al- 
ready been  said  regarding  how  to  teach  farm  management  will 
apply  as  well  to  rural  schools  as  to  other  schools.  It  is  not  believed, 
however,  that  this  subject  should  be  taught  as  a  distinct  subject  in 
rural  schools.  Many  of  the  points  in  the  best  management  of 
farms  should  be  taught  by  studying  particular  cases  in  the  dis- 
trict. These  should  be  taken  up  in  connection  with  the  study  of 
the  subjects  themselves.  Management  of  the  poultry  business 
should  be  considered  in  connection  with  the  study  of  poultry 
husbandry.  This  should  usually  be  the  case  with  each  of  the  other 
branches  studied  in  the  rural  school. 

Teaching  Farm  Management  in  Town  Grades. — Perhaps  some 
few  points  regarding  simple  principles  in  farm  management  can  be 
studied  in  grade  schools  below  high  school  rank.  If  such  lessons 
are  attempted  they  should  be  of  the  concrete  form  and  deal  chiefly 
with  materials.  In  the  upper  grades  some  of  the  laboratory  exer- 
cises suggested  in  this  chapter  may  be  used.  Business  forms, 
drawings  of  farmsteads  and  perhaps  the  drawing  of  farms  with 
fields  are  exercises  not  too  difficult  for  students  of  the  upper  grades. 
Trips  to  elevators,  packing  houses,  warehouses,  and  other  places 
where  farm  produce  is  handled  wnll  bring  to  the  minds  of  town 
children  many  elements  in  farm  management  which  will  broaden 
their  minds  and  cause  them  to  think  of  the  importance  of  good 
farm  management. 

Farm  Management  in  Short  Courses.— When  high  schools 
offer  short  courses  for  only  a  week  or  a  few  weeks  they  should  not 
attempt  to  teach  the  whole  subject  of  farm  management  in  its 
many  phases.  They  should  select  the  elements  in  farm  manage- 
ment which  relate  to  the  leading  kinds  of  farming  of  the  region. 
These  elements  of  farm  management  should  be  impressed  on  the 
fanners  or  students  attending  such  brief  courses.  Most  of  these 
lessons  should  be  given  to  the  students  by  successful  farmers  who 


240  HOW  TO  TEACH  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

are  known  to  have  l>een  successful  in  the  special  lines  of  farming 
under  consideration.  These  farmers  should  speak  from  experience 
and  tell  of  their  own  management.  The  lessons  in  farm  manage- 
ment which  are  to  be  impressed  during  any  short  course  should  be 
few  in  number  and  important  enough  so  that  they  will  bear  re- 
peating many  times  during  the  course.  This  may  be  planned  by 
the  program  committee  or  the  instructor  of  the  school  so  that  all  of 
the  students  will  feel  that  they  have  learned  well  the  methods  in 
farm  management. 

In  college  short  courses  the  problem  is  only  slightly  different 
from  that  just  discussed.  More  lessons  may  be  considered  when 
the  course  covers  several  months.  As  the  farmers  or  students 
attending  college  short  courses  are  producers,  it  is  best  to  have  the 
lessons  in  farm  management  deal  directly  with  production  and 
marketing  of  particular  farm  products.  Frequently  the  students 
are  following  special  lines  of  farming  and  the  special  management 
which  is  best  for  each  of  these  special  lines  should  be  presented  by 
specialists  in  those  lines.  Here  also  the  instructor  should  speak 
from  experience.  Many  of  the  field  trips  suggested  earlier  in  this 
chapter  may  be  taken  by  college  short-course  students.  Much 
lalxn-atory  work  may  be  planned  for  college  short-course  students 
if  time  will  permit.  If  the  time  is  too  limited,  only  the  most  im- 
portant lines  of  such  work  should  be  included. 

A  Typical  Lesson  in  Farm  Management. — Suppose  that  this  is 
a  second  lesson  on  the  subject  of  farm  equipment.  In  the  assign- 
ment of  the  lesson  let  each  student  be  told  to  determine  at  home 
what  machines  are  most  likely  to  be  purchased  next  on  their  farms. 
They  are  each  to  make  a  list  of  the  needs  for  such  a  machine  as 
they  are  about  to  purchase.  Each  is  to  determine  the  cost  of  the 
machine.  Each  is  to  outline  the  conditions  which  make  it  advis- 
able to  have  the  machine.  He  is  to  describe  how  the  farm  has  been 
getting  along  without  it.  He  is  to  calculate  the  saving  in  hand 
labor  or  in  any  other  line  by  the  purchasing  of  this  machine.  He 
is  to  show  how  much  more  produce  may  be  raised  on  the  farm  by 
the  purchase  of  the  machine.  He  is  to  summarize  all  of  this  and 
prove  to  the  class  that  it  will  actually  pay  to  own  this  extra  machine 
on  the  home  farm. 

At  recitation  time  let  each  student  report  on  the  results  of  his 
study.  Where  mistakes  in  calculation  have  been  made  they  should 
be  pointed  out  and  corrected.  Be  sure  that  each  student  has 
completely  mastered  the  idea  that  the  purchase  of  added  equip- 


DEBATES  ON  FARM  MANAGEMENT  TOPICS  241 

ment  for  the  farm  should  always  l>e  preceded  by  such  calculations 
as  these.  Ask  each  student  to  tell  of  examples  of  the  purchase  of 
machines  which  have  proven  of  little  value  on  their  farms  or 
neighboring  farms. 

Let  some  of  the  best  calculations  made  by  members  of  the 
class  be  placed  on  the  blackboard  for  class  analysis  and  study. 
Be  sure  that  the  student  has  considered  interest,  depreciation, 
repairs,  oil,  and  cost  of  operation  when  he  is  proving  the  value 
of  the  new  machine. 

Have  each  of  the  students  take  down  some  of  the  best  calcula- 
tions for  each  of  the  types  of  machines  reported  upon  at  these 
exercises.  If  time  will  permit,  other  problems  along  this  line  may 
be  assigned  to  students  for  solution.  If  the  recitation  period  is 
too  brief  for  the  complete  study  of  all  of  the  reports  of  members 
of  the  class,  let  the  papers  prepared  by  members  be  passed  to 
others  for  review  and  criticisms.  This  step  might  be  made  in  the 
first  part  of  the  recitation  period,  and  after  each  critic  has  reviewed 
the  paper  of  the  fellow-student,  then  let  the  criticisms  be  brought 
out  in  class  discussion. 

Farm  Management  Discussions. — Teachers  of  farm  manage- 
ment, assisted  by  their  classes,  should  constantly  wratch  for  topics 
which  are  suitable  for  debates  and  discussions.  The  purpose  of  such 
debates  and  discussions  is  to  keep  the  minds  of  students  and  pro- 
ducers active  along  farm  management  lines. 

Teachers  of  agriculture  should  try  to  have  their  students  dis- 
cuss many  farm  management  topics.  There  are  many  points  which 
will  be  impressed  upon  their  minds  only  by  constant  repetition 
and  discussion.  The  time  in  class  recitation  is  far  too  brief  for  all 
of  the  important  principles  in  farm  management  to  be  thoroughly 
fixed  in  their  minds.  Indeed,  if  too  many  of  the  topics  are  con- 
sidered, none  of  them  will  be  as  well  fixed  as  they  should  be. 
Train  students  to  discuss  farm  management  topics  among  each 
other,  to  consult  their  parents  frequently  on  many  of  the  points. 
If  they  can  interest  their  parents  in  topics  of  economy,  farm  losses, 
farm  improvements,  better  livestock,  etc.,  they  will  have  accom- 
plished much  toward  fixing  in  their  own  minds  many  lessons  in 
farm  management. 

Debates  on  Farm  Management  Topics. — Suitable  subjects  for 
debate,  either  at  community  clubs,  boys  and  girls'  clubs,  or  in 
classes  in  agriculture,  or  at  literary  societies,  are  quite  numerous. 
The  topics,  if  possible,  should  be  selected  to  suit  local  conditions. 

16 


242  HOW  TO  TEACH  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

The  statement  of  the  question  may  be  positive  or  negative  to  suit 
the  rules  of  debate  or  to  suit  the  local  conditions.  The  topics 
here  suggested  are  easily  modified  and  the  list  is  not  to  be  con- 
sidered complete. 

1.  Resolved,  that  it  is  better  for  a  young  man  to  borrow  money  to  start 
farming  for  himself  than  to  work  for  wages  until  he  has  enough  capital  for 
the  purpose. 

2.  Resolved,  that  the  farms  of  this  region  have  too  much  machinery  equip- 
ment (or  too  little). 

3.  Resolved,  that  the  school,  church,  and  social  conditions  are  more  im- 
portant in  choosing  a  farm  than  the  soil  and  topography. 

4.  Resolved,  that  the  buildings  of  a  farmstead  should  be  assembled  close 
together  regardless  of  danger  of  fire  spreading  from  one  to  another. 

5.  Resolved,  that  it  pays  better  to  rent  farms  than  to  buy  them. 

6.  Resolved,  that  cover  crops  are  better  than  terraces  in  farm  manage- 
ment to  prevent  soil  erosion. 

7.  Resolved,  that  it  is  better  to  raise  pure-bred  hogs  (or  cattle)  than  to 
merely  own  a  pure-bred  sire  and  grade  up  the  herd. 

8.  Resolved,  that  farm  laborers  should  be  given  better  treatment  and  more 
opportunities  to  improve  themselves  instead  of  better  pay. 

9.  Resolved,  that  it  pays  to  paint  farm  buildings,  plant  shrubbery,  vines 
and  trees  in  the  yards  as  much  as  to  raise  crops. 

10.  Resolved,  that  farm  bookkeeping  pays  more  for  the  time  used  than 
any  other  part  of  fanning. 

11.  Resolved,  that  there  are  more  kinds  of  loss  in  farming  than  in  any 
one  line  of  city  business. 

12.  Resolved,  that  a  majority  of  all  farm  losses  are  preventable. 

13.  Resolved,  that  the  cooperative  ownership  of  machinery  is  not  profitable. 

14.  Resolved,    that    a    cooperative   creamery    should    be    organized    in 
this  region. 

15.  Resolved,  that  the  cooperative  selling  of  livestock  is  better  than  selling 
through  local  buyers. 

Things  to  Discover  in  Farm  Management. — The  student  who 
thinks  deeply  into  farm  management  problems  will  be  able  to 
make  many  discoveries.  A  number  of  lines  along  which  discoveries 
must  be  made  are  suggested  in  the  foregoing  list  of  debatable 
questions.  He  must  try  to  discover  just  what  kind  of  soil  manage- 
ment will  bring  the  best  results  with  the  least  effort  and  least 
expenditure  of  money.  He  must  discover,  if  possible,  whether  the 
improvements  of  his  farm  in  appearance,  buildings,  and  farm 
equipment  will  really  add  to  the  value  of  his  farm  or  to  his  income, 
or  to  lx)th.  He  must  discover  whether  advertising  his  product 
pays  or  not.  He  must  discover  what  mediums  of  advertising  are 
the  best. 

Ix't  teachers  of  agriculture  set  students  to  work  making  dis- 
coveries in  farm  management.  Have  them  report,  their  discoveries 
in  class  from  time  to  time.  They  may  make  some  of  these  dis- 


THINGS  TO  OBSERVE  IN  FARM  MANAGEMENT         243 

coverics  while  they  are  pursuing  their  home  projects.  Whenever 
a  discovery  is  made  by  parents  and  neighbors  it  should  also  be 
reported  by  students  at  school.  Let  prospective  teachers  who 
are  studying  this  subject  increase  the  list  or  give  about  twenty- 
five  or  more  discoveries  that  may  be  made. 

Things  to  Solve  in  Farm  Management. — Students  should  learn 
to  solve  many  of  the  farm  problems  while  pursuing  home  projects. 
A  brief  list  of  things  to  solve  is  given  here  merely  for  suggestion: 

(1)  How  to  secure  better  farm  labor.  (2)  How  to  make  labor  better  con- 
tented. (3)  How  to  manage  ignorant  laborers  with  efficiency.  (4)  How  to 
manage  a  berry  or  cherry  crop  without  loss  during  wet  weather.  (5)  How  to 
train  farm  hands  to  put  away  tools  and  implements  after  using  them.  (6) 
How  to  best  handle  the  farm  manure  crop  with  least  loss.  (7)  How  to  teach 
dairymen  to  treat  animals  kindly.  (8)  How  to  induce  teamsters  to  get  good 
results  from  their  teams  without  hurting  them.  (9)  How  to  prevent  sore 
shoulders  during  plowing  season.  (10)  What  system  of  bookkeeping  would 
best  suit  my  farm?  (11)  Would  it  pay  to  equip  my  farm  with  a  supply  of 
hay  caps  for  curing  clover  or  alfalfa  in  shocks?  (12)  Which  of  my  lines  of 
farming  are  most  profitable  on  my  farm?  (13)  Would  it  pay  to  add  sheep  to 
my  list  of  livestock?  (14)  Would  it  pay  to  buy  a  manure  spreader  for  my  farm? 
(15)  Shall  I  purchase  a  manure  carrier  and  track  for  my  barn?  (16)  Would  a 
tractor  pay  on  a  farm  the  size  of  mine?  (Fig.  116.) 

Let  the  prospective  teacher  of  agriculture  extend  this  list  to 
twenty-five  or  more.  Teachers  of  agriculture  should  assign  many 
problems  such  as  these  to  their  students  for  solution. 

Things  to  Observe  in  Farm  Management. — Teach  young  farm- 
ers to  observe  many  points  in  farm  management,  particularly 
on  the  best  farms  of  the  region.  Let  them  report  their  observa- 
tions in  class  from  time  to  time  so  that  they  will  constantly  be  on 
the  alert  to  see  them  whenever  opportunity  offers.  A  suggestive 
list  is  given  to  show  teachers  and  prospective  teachers  just  what 
is  meant. 

1.  When  some  farmer  has  improved  his  farm  by  making  suitable  plantings, 
or  improving  the  lawn,  or  painting  the  buildings,  or  building  walks  and  better 
fences,  notice  the  effect  upon  his  neighbors  and  report  what  is  said  in  the  neigh- 
borhood regarding  it.    Does  it  help  to  lead  others  to  improve  their  own  places? 
Would  a  general  improvement  along   these   lines  be  a   real  benefit   to  the 
community  in  keeping  boys  and  girls  contented  with  farm  life?      Would  such 
a  movement  be  of  benefit  to  land  owners  when  buyers  visit  the  farms? 

2.  Observe  the  effect  upon  farm  hands  when  some  fanner  improves  the 
sleeping  quarters  or  otherwise  tries  to  make  farm  laborers  more  contented. 

3.  Observe  the  effects  upon  any  fanner  when  he  begins  to  systematically 
keep  fann  records.     Observe  the  effect  on  a  fanner  when  he  purchases  pure- 
bred livestock  of  any  kind.    Also  note  the  effect  upon  his  neighbors. 

4.  Observe  the  difference  in  success  between  farmers  on  farms  of  the  same 
general  type.     Is  the  difference  due  to  arrangement   of   buildings,  keeping 
accounts,  or  what  is  the  cause? 


244  HOW  TO  TEACH  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

5.  When  buyers  choose  farms  in  your  region  note  the  kinds  of  farms 
purchased. 

6.  Observe  whether  a  tractor  purchased  by  a  neighbor  has  proven  a  benefit 
or  detriment  to  his  success  as  a  farmer  (Fig.  116). 

7.  Observe  the  different  methods  of  handling  manure,  treating  fields  in 
winter,  housing  livestock,  pasturing  hogs,  cleaning  fence  rows,  marketing  farm 
produce,  selecting  seed  corn,  buying  farm  and  home  suppb'es. 

Things  to  Do  in  Farm  Management. — Have  your  students  do 
something  worth  while  in  farm  management  from  time  to  time  as 
they  pursue  the  work  in  home  projects.  Let  them  report  at  school 
things  they  do  in  farm  management.  These  may  be  approved 
or  disapproved  by  the  instructor.  They  may,  if  so  desired,  report 
some  of  the  things  to  the  class  for  discussion.  Let  the  following 
list  be  expanded  and  kept  before  the  students,  or  at  least  in  the 
mind  of  the  instructor,  so  that  students  may  be  reminded  from  time 
to  time  of  the  things  they  ought  to  be  doing  at  home: 

1.  When  marketing  methods  are  not  entirely  satisfactory  change  them 
and  report  the  change  in  method  (Fig.  118). 

2.  If  you  have  been  hauling  manure  out  to  a  field  in  winter  when  the 
ground  was  frozen,  change  your  methods  when  a  thaw  comes  if  the  hauling 
would  injure  the  field. 

3.  If  you  have  been  borrowing  tools  and  machinery  from  neighbors  and 
can  secure   capital  enough   to  buy  what  you  need,   report  the   change  in 
management. 

4.  Keep  machinery  better  housed,  better  painted,  and  better  oiled. 

5.  Start  a  good  system  of  cost  accounting  including  all  the  leading  opera- 
tions of  the  farm. 

6.  Keep  a  strict  account  of  the  farm  inventory,  with  the  value  of  all  articles 
of  equipment. 

7.  Improve  the  dairy  by  keeping  records  of  the  weight  and  test  of  milk 
produced  by  each  animal. 

8.  Keep  all  pure-bred  livestock  properly  registered. 

9.  Make  improvements  if  possible  in  the  shape  and  arrangement  of  the 
fields  of  the  farm  (Fig.  113). 

10.  Plan  better  rotations  for  your  farm  if  possible. 

11.  Stop  all  losses  that  you  can  find  occurring  on  your  farm. 

12.  Increase  the  amount  of  running  capital  for  your  farm  operations  up 
to  the  point  of  greatest  profit. 

13.  Measure  your  farm  by  the  labor  income  method  and  increase  this  to 
the  highest  possible  point. 

Farm  Management  Readings. — There  are  often  accounts  given 
in  agricultural  journals  of  successes  in  farm  management.  Students 
should  be  trained  to  read  these  with  proper  interpretations.  There 
may  be  danger  of  overstatements  or  wrong  impressions  given  by 
glowing  accounts.  Students  should  remember  in  reading  these 
that  many  farm  operations  look  better  on  paper  than  they  do  on 
the  farm  itself.  If  students  would  write  up  some  of  the  operations 
that  show  good  examples  of  farm  management  in  the  neighbor- 


SCHOOL  LIBRARY  REFERENCE  BOOKS 


245 


hood,  they  would  see  how  these  look  when  printed  in  the  local 
press.  Note  the  effect  of  these  upon  other  students  or  neigh lx>rs 
who  read  them. 

Many  bulletins  are  issued  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Farm  Management  and  by  similar  departments  in  state  colleges 
from  time  to  time.  These  should  be  read  and  studied  either  for 
class  use  or  for  reporting  in  literary  societies,  community  meetings, 
or  clubs.  Train  students  to  read  much  on  the  subject  of  farm 
management.  Their  minds  will  thus  be  kept  upon  the  subject 
more  than  if  they  gained  all  of  their  management  lessons  from  class 
discussions  without  doing  much  reading.  By  reading  students 
will  be  able  to  learn  principles 
and  to  summarize  results  bet- 
ter than  if  they  hear  discus- 
sions only. 

Teachers  should  assign 
readings  to  different  students 
and  have  these  students  re- 
port at  some  specific  time 
the  results  of  their  reading. 
Interesting  stones  in  farm 
management  have  been  pub- 
lished. Induce  students  to 
read  these  for  mere  entertain- 
ment and  the  results  will  be 
helpful  in  the  management  of 
their  farms. 

School  Library  Reference 
Books  in  Farm  Management.3 
—Teachers  should  obtain  the 
latest  list  of  books  on  this  subject  from  the  States  Relations  Ser- 
vice, United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Secure  from  this 
list  all  of  the  best  and  latest  books  on  the  subject.  A  few  books 
on  rural  economics  and  agricultural  economics  should  be  included. 

If  the  typical  method  of  conducting  the  class  work  is  to  be 
followed  for  all  or  a  part  of  the  time  during  this  course,  there  should 
be  several  copies  of  some  of  the  best  reference  books  on  the  shelves. 
This  will  enable  the  instructor  to  assign  a  number  of  students  to 
the  same  authority  in  the  preparation  of  topics  for  the  same  recita- 
tion. Books  of  a  popular  nature  which  touch  upon  farm  manage- 

3 Sec  Chapter  XVII. 


Fio.    118. — Tliis     New    Jersey    student     estab- 
lished    a    "vocational"    market     at     his     home 
near  the   public   road   for   the  motoring  public. 
(A.  W.  Hand.) 


246  HOW  TO  TEACH  FARM   MANAGEMENT 

incnt  should  be  included  in  the  list  if  there  are  funds  sufficient  to 
warrant  this  investment.  They  will  aid  in  causing  students  to 
give  more  attention  to  the  subject  of  farm  management  without 
realizing  that  they  are  really  studying  at  all.  Suggestions  for  the 
arrangement  of  library  books  are  given  elsewhere.4 

Bulletins  on  Farm  Management.4 — From  the  same  source  above 
suggested  get  the  latest  list  of  bulletins  relating  to  farm  manage- 
ment. Obtain  all  of  these  that  are  still  available  and  classify  them 
for  use  in  the  school.  Write  to  your  own  experiment  station  and 
to  a  number  or  all  of  those  in  other  states  and  ask  for  a  list  of  the 
available  bulletins  on  this  subject.  Send  for  these  bulletins  and 
include  all  that  in  any  way  relate  to  better  management  on  any 
of  the  lines  of  farming.  There  are  many  such  bulletins  published. 
These  should  be  carefully  grouped  according  to  the  suggestions 
given  in  another  chapter. 

Farm  Management  in  Journals.4 — There  are  several  periodicals 
published  which  are  devoted  chiefly  to  farm  management.  These 
of  course  should  be  placed  on  the  reading  tables.  Also  include 
those  journals  which  have  good  departments  of  farm  management. 
Some  journals  publish  excellent  accounts  of  farm  management  by 
good  writers.  These  are  not  always  grouped  in  departments  called 
"Farm  Management."  They  are  nevertheless  just  as  valuable 
for  students  to  read.  Some  schools  make  it  a  practice  to  send  the 
agricultural  journal  to  the  home  of  students  on  Friday  night  to 
be  returned  Monday  morning.  If  this  is  done,  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  have  each  student  ask  his  parents  to  express  their  opinions  of 
some  particular  article  in  the  journal.  This  may  start  some  home 
discussion.  It  may  assure  the  teacher  that  the  magazines  are 
lx-ing  well  used  and  it  establishes  a  connecting  link  of  thought 
between  teacher  and  parents. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Make  plans  of  a  farmstead  with  which  you  are  very  familiar,  showing 
many  of  the  details,  such  as  arrangement  of  buildings,  wells,  lots,  walks,  roads, 
and  fences. 

2.  Plan  and  replan  the  lay-out  of  fields  on  this  farm  to  make  them  the 
most  ideal. 

3.  Make  a  card  index  of  the  pure-bred  stock  of  a  neighborhood. 

4.  Nlake  application  for  registration  of  pure-bred  stock  for  at  least  one 
breed  in  each  of  the  kinds  of  farm  animals — sheep,  cattle,  horses,  hogs. 

5.  Make  a  form  for  keeping  egg  records;  another  for  incubator  records. 

6.  Select,  or  make,  a  set  of  forms  for  use  in  cost  accounting  for  at  least 
three  of  the  field  crops  of  your  state. 

4  See  Chapter  XVII. 


QUESTIONS  247 

7.  Conduct  a  field  exercise  with  your  classmates,  or  others,  to  make  a 
study  of  the  farm  methods  in  some  particular  lines. 

8.  Make  a  study  of  the  rules,  methods,  and  management  of  a  marketing 
association  in  your  region  or  elsewhere. 

9.  Conduct  a  trip  for  the  study  of  markets  in  a  good  market  center. 

10.  Conduct  a  study  of   a   nearby  warehouse,  creamery,   packing  plant, 
elevator,  or  other  institution  of  your  region. 

11.  Make  a  farm-management  survey  of  a  small  neighborhood. 

12.  Make  one  or  more  charts  to  aid  in  teaching  farm  management. 

13.  Take  local  photographs  to  teach  important  points  in  farm  management. 

14.  Make  a  full  outline  of  several  typical  lessons  in  farm  management. 

15.  Make  inventories  of  one  or  more  farms. 

10.  Compare  annual  inventories  of  one  farm,  made  in  successive  years. 

17.  Get  blanks  from   the   agricultural  college  of  your  state  and  of  neigh- 
boring states  and  from  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  showing  different 
systems  of  farm  accounting. 

18.  Make  a  graph  of   the  weekly  price  of  corn,  hogs,  or  some  other  farm 
product. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  State  the  specific  aim  in  a  course  in  farm  management. 

2.  Give  the  content  of  such  a  course. 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  special  methods  in  teaching  this  subject? 

4.  Give  good  topics  for  beginning  class  work  in  farm  management. 

5.  Suggest  a  number  of  laboratory  exercises  in  farm  management. 

(>.  How  should  students  learn  to  keep  account  of  cost  of  production? 

7.  Why  should  students  practice  the  making  of  applications  for  registering 

pure-bred  stock? 

8.  Why  should  students  learn  to  use  forms  for  keeping  records  of  production 

in  poultry?    In  dairying? 

9.  Suggest  a  number  of  field  exercises  in  farm  management. 

10.  Give  topics  to  be  included  in  a  farm  management  survey. 

11.  How  could  you  use  farm  management  charts  in  fanners'  meetings? 

12.  Suggest  some  suitable  views  for  lantern  slides  for  use  in  fanners'  meetings. 

13.  How  could  you  teach  farm  management  in  rural  schools?    In  town  grades? 

14.  Suggest  suitable  topics  for  farm  management  in  a  short  course. 

15.  Review  a  typical  lesson  in  farm  management. 

16.  Suggest  a  number  of  topics  for  debate  in  farm  management. 

17.  What  are  some  of  the  things  for  a  student  to  discover  in  this  field? 
IS.  What  are  some  of  the  tilings  for  him  to  solve? 

19.  What  are  some  of  the  things  to  be  observed  in  this  field? 

20.  Mention  a  number  of  things  to  do  in  farm  management. 

21.  Suggest  some  reading  assignments  for  this  course. 

22.  Make  a  list  of  good  reference  books  for  high-school  libraries,  relating  to 

this  course. 


CHAPTER  XII 

HOW  TO  TEACH  SOILS 

"The  specific  aim  of  the  work  in  soils  is  to  enable  young  people  to  obtain 
such  a  knowledge  of  the  most  important  principles  of  the  formation,  properties, 
and  management  of  soils,  applicable  primarily  to  their  own  vicinity,  as  will 
prepare  them  for  the  successful  production  of  maximum  crops  and  the  main- 
tenance of  soil  fertility." — Report  of  Committee  on  Agriculture  of  the  N.  E.  A. 
Commission  on  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education. 

Field  Covered. — This  subject  includes  the  origin  and  classi- 
fication of  soils;  relation  of  composition  to  plants  and  animals; 
soils  and  plant  relations;  soil  and  crop  production;  soil  water, 
drainage  and  irrigation;  tilth  and  tillage;  soil  organisms  in  relation 
to  fertility;  chemical  elements  of  fertility;  liming  in  relation  to 
fertility;  the  harmful  agents  in  soils;  crop  rotation  in  relation  to 
fertility;  application  of  principles  to  soil  management;  soil  erosion; 
systems  of  farming  in  relation  to  fertility;  determining  the  needs 
of  soils;  profitable  crop  production;  dry-land  farming. 

The  content  of  the  course  on  soils  of  any  school  should  be  made 
to  suit  the  region.  The  soils  of  other  localities  need  not  be  studied 
except  in  college  courses  and  in  teacher  training  courses. 

The  work  given  in  the  course  on  soils  should  be  of  a  vocational 
character,  i.e.,  the  theoretical  and  abstract  phases  of  the  work  may 
be  largely  omitted  in  the  teaching  of  vocational  agriculture.  For 
example,  in  those  parts  of  the  United  States  where  irrigation  is 
not  practiced  because  it  is  not  necessary,  the  study  of  irrigation 
systems  and  methods  of  handling  irrigation  water  should  be 
omitted.  In  regions  where  drainage  is  seldom  or  never  needed, 
the  problems  of  drainage  should  be  omitted  from  the  course  of 
study.  In  level  prairie  states  the  problems  of  erosion  should 
be  omitted. 

The  study  of  soil  formation  may  be  considered  prevocational 
in  character.  Such  studies  are  better  suited  to  elementary  classes 
than  to  studies  pursued  in  vocational  agriculture. 

The  study  of  marsh-land  farming,  or  the  study  of  sands  and 
their  management,  or  the  study  of  depleted  clays  and  silts  is 
chiefly  of  local  importance  and  suited  to  special  regions. 

Relation  of  Soils  to  Other  Subjects. — Much  of  the  study  of 
soils,  so  far  as  they  are  related  to  the  production  of  horticultural 
crops,  may  be  pursued  in  connection  with  the  study  of  horticul- 
248 


RELATION  OF  SOILS  TO  OTHER  SUBJECTS 


249 


ture.  In  the  course  in  gardening  make  considerable  study  of 
garden  soils  and  their  management.  In  the  course  in  fruit  grow- 
ing study  fruit  soils  and  their  management.  These  subjects  must 
contain  such  soil  studies  even  if  the  students  had  a  special  course 
in  soil  work. 

In  the  course  in  field  crops  some  work  in  soil  management 
must  be  given  (Fig.  119).    The  general  work  in  soil  improvement 


FIG.    119. — Teach  students  and  farmers  the  importance  of  knowing  the  limiting 
factors  in  the  soil's  production.     (W.  W.  Weir,  "Productive  Soils.") 

and  soil  management  is  closely  associated  with  field  crop  work. 
It  is  difficult  to  study  the  subject  of  field  crops  without  considering 
much  of  the  work  in  soils.  Yet  many  schools  find  it  advisable  to 
offer  a  course  in  soils  and  fertilizers  independent  of  the  field  crop 
work.  In  such  cases  it  is  probably  best  to  let  the  course  in  soils 
be  given  at  the  same  time  as  the  course  in  field  crops.  In  some 
schools,  however,  the  course  in  soils  is  given  after  the  course  in 
field  crops.  In  either  case  it  is  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  more 
extended  and  thorough  treatment  of  soils  and  fertilizers  than  is 
possible  when  combined  with  agronomy. 


250  HOW  TO  TEACH  SOILS 

Equipment  for  the  Course  in  Soil  Work. — In  making  up  a  com- 
plete equipment  for  the  soil  laboratory,  look  over  the  list  of 
apparatus  in  several  of  the  soil  laboratory  manuals.  The  very 
full  and  complete  lists  in  such  manuals  include  many  small  items 
which  need  not  be  mentioned  in  this  book.  The  laboratory  should 
be  well  equipped  with  all  items  necessary.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  many  items  of  expense  may  be  omitted  by 
substituting  apparatus  of  a  cheaper  nature  or  equipment  used  in 
other  courses  in  the  school.  For  example,  if  a  deep-cup  milk 
testing  machine  is  owned  by  the  school,  it  may  be  used  in  experi- 
ments in  the  analyzing  of  soils.  Deep  soil  test  tubes  may  be 
obtained  to  fit  the  centrifugal  machine  and  it  will  then  serve  two 
important  purposes.  Many  experiments  in  capillarity,  percola- 
tion, apparent  specific  gravity,  and  others  may  use  such  simple 
equipment  as  lamp  chimneys,  glasses  (Fig.  120),  empty  tomato 
cans,  cigar  boxes,  etc.  If  desired,  a  soil-packing  machine  may  be 
omitted  from  the  equipment  by  having  the  students  pack  the 
soil  by  dropping  the  container  a  given  number  of  inches  for  a  given 
number  of  times  on  a  pamphlet  serving  as  a  pad. 

Laboratory  Apparatus.1 — Besides  the  laboratory  apparatus  the 
school  should  have  models  of  \vork  tables,  sinks,  running  water, 
cases  and  containers  for  illustrative  material,  supplies  of  many 
types  of  soil  ingredients  for  experimental  work.  It  is  well  to  have 
cupboards  with  glass  doors  for  the  apparatus,  cupboards  with 
wooden  doors  for  the  supplies,  drawers  for  glassware,  test  tubes  and 
small  apparatus  upon  shelves  for  the  setting  up  of  experiments 
which  are  to  run  for  many  days.  The  room  should  be  arranged  so 
that  laboratory  tables  are  convenient  for  use  of  the  students,  and 
so  that  seats  may  be  provided  in  the  same  room  for  recitation 
purposes.  Have  cases  with  sliding  frames  for  lantern  slides. 
Have  suitable  shelves  or  upright  cabinets  for  holding  charts. 
There  should  be  a  drying  oven,  thermometers,  a  series  of  soil 
sieves,  a  few  coarse  sieves,  soil  auger,  soil  spade,  drainage  tools, 
glass  tubing,  test  tubes,  metal  soil  tubes,  tall  slender  lamp  chim- 
neys, glass  soil  tubes,  a  compound  microscope,  several  small  hand 
lenses,  reading  glass  and  stand,  a  soil  centrifugal  machine  or  a 
simple  substitute  in  the  form  of  a  Babcock  tester  with  pockets 
big  enough  to  hold  the  glass  soil  tubes. 

Soil  Supplies  and  Samples. — For  experiments  with  soils  provide 
good  supplies  of  soils  of  various  types  from  your  region  and  other 

1  Sc<:  also  Chapter  XV. 


CLASS  WORK  WITH  SOILS  251 

parts  of  the  state.  Be  sure  to  include  very  sandy  soil,  heavy  clay 
soil,  medium  loam,  and  soils  very  rich  in  humus.  Have  available 
also  supplies  of  lime  in  several  forms,  such  as  rock  dust,  limekiln 
waste,  air-slacked  lime,  hydrated  lime,  and  freshly  burned  quick- 
lime. The  latter  should  be  excluded  from  the  air  by  placing  it  in  a 
large  can  and  having  it  securely  covered.  Prepare  a  set  of  small 
vials  or  tubes  containing  the  proportionate  parts  of  one  or  more 
soil  analyses.  Obtain  also  source  materials  for  fertilizer  mixtures. 
Soil  Containers. — Let  the  school  be  well  supplied  with  soil  bins 
or  with  covered  galvanized  iron  cans  holding  several  gallons. 
Small  samples  of  soil  from  various  farms  may  be  kept  in  bottles 
with  glass  stoppers.  These  should  be  plainly  labeled.  Many  of 


Fia.   120. — Many  tests  with  fertilizers  may  he  made  in  classes,  tin  cans,  and  flower  pots. 

Here  the  trial  is  with  different  forms  of  lime  in  1,  '2,  3,  and  4;  compared  with  magnesia  in  5. 

("Agriculture  and  Life.") 

the  samples  passed  around  for  laboratory  work  or  for  examination 
in  class  may  be  in  small  vials,  in  paper  trays,  in  Petri  dishes,  etc. 

Flower  pots  and  large  experimental  pots  of  galvanized  iron 
may  be  used  in  trials  and  demonstrations  in  the  growth  of  plants 
under  various  kinds  of  treatment. 

Either  in  the  laboratory  or  near  by  should  be  machines  used 
in  tillage  of  soils.  These  may  be  represented  by  good  examples  of 
machines  of  full  size  but  of  the  smallest  types.  Others  may  be 
represented  by  models  if  these  are  obtainable. 

Class  Work  with  Soils. — If  the  course  in  soils  has  been  well 
planned,  the  needs  of  the  region  will  have  been  considered.  The 
soil  phases  of  project  work  of  farmers  and  students  should  l>e 
included  in  the  course.  The  best  rotation  for  permanent  mainte- 
nance of  the  fertility  of  the  land  will  be  given  due  consideration 
(Fig.  121). 

The  class  work  should  be  of  such  practical  nature  that  students 
will  feel  the  great  value  of  each  recitation  and  realize  how  closely 


252 


HOW  TO  TEACH  SOILS 


it  is  connected  with  their  farm  operations.  Lesson  assignments 
should  be  by  topics  and  references  to  places  in  bulletins  or  books 
where  these  topics  are  discussed  in  the  most  practical  manner. 
Abstruse  and  theoretical  phases  should  be  left  to  college  courses 
and  to  courses  where  teachers  of  the  subject  are  being  trained. 
In  assigning  lessons,  let  students  understand  that  they  are  to  add 
their  own  experiences  and  observations  to  the  reading  which  they  do. 
Let  the  class  work  also  be  based  upon  teaching  of  laboratory 
experiments.  Never  allow  students  to  perform  experiments  in 
the  laboratory  without  reporting  their  results  orally  in  class  reci- 
tations as  well  as  in  written  form  in  their  notebooks.  If  the 


FIG.  121. 


FIG.   122. 


FIG.  121. — This  student  ran  a  project  in  soil  improvement.  Here  he  has  established  a  success- 
ful sod  to  turn  under.  The  profit  is  determined  by  assessment  of  land  before  and  after. 

(A.  W.  Hand,  N.  J.) 

FIG.  122. — Students  studying  soils  and  testing  for  acidity  in  a  cotton  field.     (G.  R.  Ransom, 

Okla.) 

experiments  are  of  use,  the  application  of  them  to  farm  practice 
should  be  made  and  the  class  recitation  should  bring  forth  all 
such  applications. 

Let  the  mistakes  of  farmers  and  neighbors  in  soil  management 
be  brought  out  for  topics  of  discussion  in  class  recitations  (Fig. 
122).  Also  let  the  good  practices  in  soil  improvement  and  in 
permanently  maintaining  soil  fertility  and  other  good  examples  of 
soil  management  be  clearly  presented  by  students  in  class  work. 

A  Type  Lesson  in  Soils. — Suppose  the  lesson  assigned  at  a  pre- 
ceding meeting  of  the  class  has  been  on  the  subject  of  liming  of 
soils.  The  special  topics  of  the  assignment  may  be  kinds  of  lim- 
ing; forms  most  available  and  prices  of  these;  effects  of  liming 
on  sandy  soils  of  the  region ;  effects  of  liming  on  heavy  soils  of  the 


SOIL  LABORATORY  WORK  253 

region ;  comparison  of  the  effects  of  burnt  lime  and  of  crushed  lime- 
stone; relation  of  liming  to  growth  of  legumes;  relation  of  liming  to 
upbuilding  of  depleted  soils;  connection  between  liming  and  manu- 
ring of  soils;  methods  and  times  for  applying  lime. 

Special  bulletins  on  liming  of  soils  may  be  used  by  students  in 
preparing  this  lesson.  Several  of  thase  topics  are  well  treated  in 
texts  and  reference  books  on  soil  physics  and  management.  Stu- 
dents may  be  able  to  inquire  in  the  neighborhood  for  examples 
which  will  illustrate  points  on  these  topics.  The  more  inquiry 
they  make  during  the  study  of  the  assignments  the  better  it  will 
be  for  them  and  for  the  community. 

When  the  class  recitation  is  presented,  let  the  students  assigned 
to  the  different  topics  be  called  upon.  The  examples  which  illus- 
trate various  topics  should  use  a  good  part  of  the  recitation  period. 
As  each  case  is  presented  and  reviewed  the  instructor  should 
develop  by  skilful  questioning  and  by  summaries  the  teachings 
which  they  illustrate. 

Several  phases  of  this  recitation  may  be  illustrated  with  class- 
room demonstrations.  For  example,  the  experiments  in  showing 
the  flocculation  of  clay  by  the  use  of  lime  on  clay  soils  may  be 
performed  in  test  tubes  before  the  class  while  the  recitation  is  in 
progress.  All  the  different  forms  of  lime  usually  used  for  agricul- 
tural purposes  should  be  examined  by  each  member  of  the  class. 
The  action  of  each  upon  litmus  paper  may  be  shown  by  students 
performing  demonstrations  before  the  class.  The  forms  of  lime 
that  are  found  to  be  most  practical  for  purchase  in  that  region 
should  be  studied  with  greatest  attention.  Then  the  methods  of 
applying,  amounts  per  acre,  cost  of  liming  and  labor,  best  times 
of  year  and  best  times  in  the  rotation  for  its  use  should  be  stressed. 
One  or  two  arithmetical  problems  may  be  placed  upon  the  board 
to  illustrate  to  the  class  the  value  of  liming  as  a  factor  in  soil 
improvement  and  crop  production.  Have  the  class  learn  by  heart 
at  recitation  time  the  couplet: 

Lime  and  lime  without  manure 
Makes  both  farm  and  farmer  poor. 

Soil  Laboratory  Work. — There  are  a  number  of  good  laboratory 
manuals  which  may  be  used  as  guides  in  formulating  the  laboratory 
course  in  soil  study.  Some  of  these  relate  to  soil  physics  and  others 
to  fertility.  For  students  that  are  preparing  themselves  for  voca- 
tional agriculture,  both  of  these  phases  of  the  course  should  be 


2f>4 


HOW  TO  TEACH  SOILS 


included.  In  other  words,  the  course  should  be  a  composite  one, 
including  the  physics  of  soils,  fertility  of  soils,  and  the  manage- 
ment of  soils.  In  order  to  formulate  the  course  special  manuals 
or  guides  may  be  selected  for  use.  Plan  the  course  by  hours,  days, 
and  weeks  for  the  term.  Select  the  exercises  which  the  students 
are  to  perform  in  the  laboratory.  List  these  exercises  and  give 
references  to  manuals  for  each.  Enough  copies  of  these  laboratory 

3 


FIG.  123. — A  scheme  for  experimental  plots  with  trials  of  four  east  and  west  and  three  north 
and  south.  Suppose  the  experiment  is  with  alfalfa  1-1,  red  clover  2-2,  and  crimson  clover 
3-3.  Across  these  plots  let  the  cross  strip  A  -A  be  both  limed  and  inoculated  properly  for 
each  kind;  let  B~B  have  lime  only;  let  C-C  have  inoculation  only;  let  D-D  have  neither  lime 
nor  inoculation.  Otherwise  the  plots  will  be  treated  alike. 

manuals  may  be  kept  in  the  laboratory  for  use  of  the  members  of 
the  class.  The  outline  of  the  course  may  be  either  posted  in  the 
lalx>ratory  or  a  copy  of  it  may  be  kept  in  the  front  of  each  student's 
lalwratory  notebook. 

In  most  vocational  courses  in  agriculture  it  is  not  absolutely 
necessary  that  all  students  perform  all  of  the  experiments.  These 
need  not  always  be  performed  in  regular  order.  Much  less  equip- 
ment is  needed  if  only  a  few  students  perform  the  same  experi- 
ments at  the  same  time.  Some  of  the  students  may  try  percolation 


SOIL  LABORATORY  WORK 


255 


experiments  while  others  are  testing  the  capillarity  of  different 
soils  of  their  farms.  Some  may  be  working  on  lime  while  others 
are  working  with  the  effects  of  humus  on  soils.  In  the  recitations 
which  follow  the  laboratory  exercises  students  must  show  that  they 
are  gaining  by  lessons  from  the  laboratory  work.  Even  though 
some  of  the  students  are  not  required  to  perform  all  of  the  exercises 
in  the  course,  they  will  have  gained  much  from  the  exercises  per- 
formed by  other  students  and  by  the  recitation  following  them. 

Certain  students  may  be  required  to  prepare  composts  for 
garden  work.  This  may  precede  or  accompany  their  projects  in 
the  growing  of  garden  crops.  Some  students  who  are  pursuing 


®iiRmm$S$i®&%B®iBSR& 


FIG.    124. — Teaoh  students  that  soil  with  a  baked  orust  cannot  retain  moisture,  while  a  dust 

mulch  will  conserve  it.     Teach  also  the  effect  of  foot  pressure  on  loose  soil.     (Right,  from 

Dunham  Co.,  Berea,  O.) 

field  crop  projects  may  make  special  tests  in  metal  cylinders  to 
demonstrate  the  value  of  special  fertilizers  in  the  growth  of  those 
crops.  If  students  have  projects  in  the  growth  of  legumes,  they 
may  demonstrate  the  need  or  lack  of  need  for  inoculation  of  soils 
by  growing  young  plants  of  these  crops  in  pots  or  cylinders.  If 
it  is  desirable,  these  trials  may  be  made  more  efficient  by  having 
the  tests  in  plots  outdoors.  The  mixing  of  fertilizers  for  special 
crops  to  be  grown  by  students  in  their  project  work  will  be  of 
value.  Such  exercises  may  be  performed  in  the  winter  before  it 
is  time  to  start  the  field  work. 

In  testing  soils  for  acidity  (Fig.  122),  and  in  the  study  of  the 
physical  composition  of  soils,  let  each  student  use  samples  from 
his  own  home  place  if  possible.  He  will  then  know  more  about  his 
own  soils  and  can  act  directly  on  the  results  of  his  laboratory  trials. 


256  HOW  TO  TEACH  SOILS 

Laboratory  Exercises  in  Soils. — The  following  list  of  exercises 
is  given  for  aid  of  teachers  in  formulating  a  suitable  course  in 
laboratory  work.  These  are  taken  from  five  laboratory  manuals 
to  which  reference  is  given.  The  manuals  are: 

(1)  "Soils  Laboratory  Manual  and  Notebook"  by  Eastman  and  Davis 
(Lippincott) ;  (2)  "Soil  Physics  Laboratory  Guide"  by  "Stevenson  and  Schaub 
(Orange  Judd);  (3)  "Soil  Physics  Laboratory  Manual  by  Mosier  and  Gustaf- 
son  (Ginn);  (4)  "A  Manual  of  Soil  Physics"  by  Barker  and  Young  (Ginn); 
(5)  "Physical  Properties  of  Soils"  by  Arthur  G.  McCall  (Orange  Judd). 

These  are  referred  to  after  each  exercise  by  the  number  just 
given.  The  instructor  should  read  over  the  list  of  exercises  some- 
what carefully  and  refer  to  them  in  the  manuals  before  deciding 
which  ones  he  wishes  to  include  in  the  course  in  his  own  school. 

Taking  Soil  Samples 1,  2,  3. 

Studying  Soil  Grains 1,  4. 

Composition  of  Soils 1. 

Soil  Classification 1,4. 

Volume  Weight  or  Apparent  Specific  Gravity 1,  2,  3. 

True  Specific  Gravity 1,  2,  3,  4. 

Heavy  and  Light  Soils 1. 

Effects  and  Determination  of  Organic  Matter 1,  2,  3,  4. 

Effect  of  Lime  and  Other  Chemicals  on  a  Clay  Soil 1,  2,  3,  4,  5. 

Moisture  Determination 1,  2,  3,  4,  5. 

Capillary  Rise  of  Water  in  Soils 1,  2,  3,  4,  5. 

Effect  of  too  Much  Organic  Matter  on  Rise  of  Water 1,  2,  3,  4,  5. 

Percolation  of  Water  Through  Soils 1,  2,  3. 

Clod  Formation  and  Crusting 1,2. 

Effect  of  Soil  Surface  and  Cultivation  on  Percolation  and  Tem- 
perature     1,  2,  3,  4. 

Capacity  of  Loose  and  Compact  Soil  to  Hold  Water 1,  2,  3. 

Effect  of  Evaporation  on  Soil  Temperature 1,  2,  4. 

Value  of  Mulches  in  the  Retention  of  Moisture 1,  2,  3,  4,  5. 

Optimum  and  Critical  Moisture 1. 

Drainage  and  Soil  Temperature 1,  2,  4. 

Effect  of  Color  on  Soil  Temperature 1,  2,  3,  4. 

Soil  Ventilation 1,  5. 

Absorption  and  Retention  of  Plant  Food  by  Soils 1,  5. 

Testing  Soils  for  Acidity : . .  . .   1,  4. 

Examination  of  Chemical  Fertilizers 1. 

Study  of  Plowing 1. 

Examination  and  Discussion  of  Tillage  Machinery 1 . 

The  Effect  of  Alternate  Wetting  and  Drying  upon  Granulation .   2,  4. 
The  Effect  of  Alternate  Freezing  and  Thawing  upon  Granulation  2,  4. 

The  Effect  of  Organic  Matter  on  Granulation 1,  2,  4. 

The  Absorption  of  Gases  by  Soils 4. 

Transference  of  Heat  in  Soils 4. 

Specific  Heat  of  Soils 3,  4,  5. 

Determination  of  Pore  Space  in  Soils 2,  5. 

Effect  of  Rolling  on  Evaporation  and  Moisture 1,2. 

Mechanical  Analysis  of  Soils 2,  3,  4,  5. 


STUDYING  SOILS  IN  THE  FIELD 


257 


Studying  Soils  in  the  Field. — Classes  may  be  taken  to  the  fields 
of  their  homes  or  neighboring  places.  There  they  should  learn 
such  lessons  as  how  to  know  whether  or  not  soils  need  inoculation 
for  special  crops.  They  should  study  the  needs  of  the  fields  with 
reference  to  drainage,  terracing  (Figs.  125  and  128),  irrigation, 
prevention  of  erosion,  addition  of  humus,  prevention  of  heaving,  etc. 

They  should  learn  also  the  value  of  special  crops  for  soil  im- 
provement, winter  covers,  green  manure,  and  prevention  of  wash- 


Era.   12"). — -Gullies  have  been  stopped  and  graded  over  as  home  project  work. 
(E.  R.   Thompson.) 

ing.  They  can  contrast  good  and  bad  ways  of  handling  manure; 
the  effects  of  special  fertilizers;  the  influence  of  certain  crops  on 
percolation;  the  effect  of  certain  treatment  on  alkali  soils;  suit- 
ability of  certain  crops  to  sandy  soils,  or  marsh  soils. 

On  such  field  trips  students  should  consult  with  owners  and 
study  methods  and  management  in  detail.  Learn  how  they  could 
apply  the  lessons  on  their  own  places.  They  should  always  take 
notes  of  the  lessons  learned.  They  should  discuss  the  lessons 
later  in  class  meetings.  They  should  be  able  to  use  the  results  of 
such  field  studies  in  the  various  assignments  of  class-room  work 
and  recitations. 
17 


258 


HOW  TO  TEA'CH  SOILS 


Fia.  1211. — Reclaiming  the  desert.    Preparing  raw  land  for  a  grain  project,  Florence,  Arizona. 


Fia.   127. — Students   of  vocational   agriculture    running    terraces    with    machine.     (E.    R. 

Thompson,  Okla.) 

Flo.  128. — Have  students  practice  filling  ditches  with  terrace  machines.    (E.  R.Thompson, 

Okla.) 

Judging  Soil  Conditions. — Not  only  the  novice  but  often  the 
experienced  fanner  has  much  difficulty  in  judging  the  condition 


JUDGING  SOIL  CONDITIONS  259 

of  the  soil,  as  to  whether  it  is  fit  to  plow  or  not,  fit  to  plant  or  not; 
whether  the  moisture  is  too  much  or  too  little,  and  whether  certain 
treatments  of  the  soil  would  be  best. 

Frequent  exercises  in  judging  soil  conditions  should  be  con- 
ducted by  the  instructor  with  his  students.  Some  of  the  following 
questions  will  be  suitable  to  use  on  different  occasions  or  under 
different  circumstances  before  the  ground  is  plowed: 

1.  Is  the  soil  warm  enough  for  spring  plowing? 

2.  Is  the  soil  too  dry  for  fall  plowing? 

3.  What  tests  would  be  required  to  answer  the  two  preceding  questions? 

4.  To  what  depth  can  the  soil  be  plowed  without  injuring  the  texture? 

5.  Would  plowing  under  present  conditions  be  best  or  should  it  have  been 
plowed  earlier  or  be  plowed  later?    Why? 

If  ground  is  already  plowed  when  the  judging  exercise  is  being  conducted, 
the  following  questions  should  be  answered : 

6.  How  deep  was  the  ground  plowed? 

7.  Was  the  plowing  too  shallow  or  too  deep? 

8.  Has  ground  been  harrowed  since  plowing? 

9.  If  not,  should  it  have  been  harrowed?    When? 

10.  Why  should  spring  plowing  always  be  harrowed  immediately  after 
plowing? 

11.  What  effect  would  a  plank  drag  have  on  the  field  if  used  at  the  time 
of  your  visit? 

12.  Would  other  conditions  be  better  for  this  operation  than  now? 

13.  Effect  of  disking  now  or  later? 

14.  Effect  of  use  of  spike-toothed  harrow  now  or  later? 

15.  What  operations  are  best  to  put  the  field  in  good  seed  condition  for 
small  seed,  as  grass  or  clover? 

16.  For  corn  or  cotton? 

17.  For  potatoes? 

If  the  judging  exercise  is  being  held  while  the  crop  is  growing,  the  following 
questions  should  be  answered: 

18.  What  kind  of  tillage  is  now  needed? 

19.  Has  deep  or  shallow  tillage  been  conducted  preceding  your  visit? 

20.  In  early  spring  would  a  roller  or  harrow  on  the  grain  field  be  most 
useful?  Why? 

21.  Is  the  soil  rather  too  sandy  for  hay  crops? 

22.  Is  the  soil  rather  too  heavy  for  potatoes  or  sweet  potatoes? 

23.  What  signs  of  good  fertility  do  you  find? 

24.  What  signs  of  impoverished  soil  do  you  find? 

25.  What  signs  for  need  of  liming  do  you  find? 

26.  What  signs  of  bad  handling  when  too  wet  or  too  dry  do  you  find? 

27.  What  remedies  would  you  suggest? 

28.  Do  you  think  subsoiling  would  suit  this  field?     Why? 

29.  What  indications  are  there  of  lack  of  humus  or  abundance  of  humus? 

30.  Does  the  soil  need  draining? 

31.  Would  irrigation  be  practical? 

Students  should  ask  themselves  these  questions  frequently 
when  in  the  field.  Too  much  skill  in  the  judging  of  soil  conditions 
cannot  be  attained  by  even  the  very  best  farmers.  Formulate 


260 


HOW  TO  TEACH  SOILS 


plans  and  operations  which  would  suit  conditions  to  be  found  at 
any  and  all  times. 

Soil  Surveys. — Rather  early  in  the  term  the  instructor  and 
students  should  plan  to  make  a  soil  survey  covering  the  territory 
as  thoroughly  as  possible.  This  survey  may  be  brief  and  need 
not  require  much  time.  If  the  questions  are  made  at  school  and 
the  blanks  are  taken  home  by  pupils,  they  may  be  returned  within 
a  day  or  two.  Some  students  will  be  able  to  obtain  the  data  called 
for  in  the  blanks  from  their  own  home  places  and  from  several 
neighbors,  if  time  for  this  will  permit.  Topics  which  should  be 
included  in  such  a  survey  are  here  suggested : 2 


Name. 

Size  of  farm. 

Area  devoted  to  each  crop. 

Soil  sandy  or  heavy. 

Acres  damaged  from  erosion. 

Acres  underdrained  or  ditch  drained. 

Acres  of  winter  cover  crops. 

How  barnyard  manure  is  kept. 

Acres  limed. 

Crops  on  limed  fields. 

Kinds  of  fertilizer. 

Is  it  considered  profitable? 


Location  from  school. 

Leading  crops  grown. 

Yield  per  acre  for  each. 

What  fruits  are  grown? 

Acres  terraced. 

Acres  under  irrigation. 

Acres  of  green  manure  plowed  under. 

When  applied  to  fields. 

Rate  of  application. 

Acres  of  commercial  fertilizer. 

Crops  grown  with  fertilizer. 

Field  rotation  followed. 


Lime  Survey. — The  object  of  this  survey  is  to  determine  the 
practices  of  the  farmers  in  any  region  regarding  the  use  of  lime  in 
crop  production.  The  following  questions  may  be  included  on  a 
lime  survey  card : 


Name  of  farmer. 

Location. 

Renter  or  owner. 

Kind  of  soil. 

Number   of   years   liming   has   been 

practiced. 
For  what  crops. 
Upland  or  lowland. 
Usual  rotation. 
At  what  stage  in  the  rotation  is  lime 

used? 

At  what  stage  in  soil  preparation? 
Frequency  of  liming. 


Amount  of  lime  per  acre. 

Kind  of  lime. 

First  cost  of  lime.     Cost  of  hauling. 

Freight. 

Do  you  use  your  own  crusher? 
Community  crusher. 
Effects  of  liming  noticed. 
What  increase  in  yields? 
Do  you   test  your  soil  with  litmus 

paper? 

Other  indications  of  need  of  lime. 
Have    clovers    failed    for   want     of 

lime? 


Charts  for  Soil  Teaching.3 — Many  charts  can  be  made  by 
schools  for  use  in  teaching  lessons  in  soil  management.  These 
charts  will  be  useful  in  regular  class  work,  in  short  courses,  and 

2  See  also  suggestions  for  farm  surveys  in  Chapter  V. 
1  See  also  Chapter  XVI, 


THE  VALUE  OF  PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY  261 

in  farmers'  institutes.  Suitable  material  for  making  these  charts 
may  be  gleaned  from  experiment  station  bulletins  and  government 
publications.  A  few  suggestions  for  charts  are  here  given : 

1.  Make  a  chart  on  the  losses  from  badly  stored  manure.     Show  the 
percentage  of  loss  of  nitrogen  and  other  fertilizing  ingredients  due  to  leaching 
and  heating.    Represent  these  percentages  in  bar  graphs  of  different  lengths. 
The  results  from  good  methods  may  be  contrasted  with  the  results  from 
poor  methods. 

2.  Shocks  of  hay  of  different  sizes  may  be  used  to  show  the  effects  of  liming 
on  the  yields  of  clover,  alfalfa,  and  other  crops.    This  chart  may  give  the  cost 
of  lime  per  acre  and  increase  in  yield  due  to  liming.    Thus  the  profit  from  liming 
may  be  shown. 

3.  Make  a  chart  comparing  the  effects  of  yields  from   three  different 
treatments  of  soil,  viz.,  plowing  under  green  manure,   applying  barnyard 
manure,  using  complete  fertilizers.    The  quantity  of  nitrogen  in  these  should 
be  the  same.    Get  the  results  from  some  bulletin  reporting  a  trial  already 
made.     The  yields  may  be  shown  in  bar  graphs,  or  in  shocks  of  hay  of 
proportionate  sizes. 

4.  Make  a  chart  showing  the  importance  of  supplying  the  fertility  in  the 
soil  which  is  most  needed.    A  barrel  of  water  may  be  shown,  the  barrel  having 
staves  of  different  heights.      Each  of  the  staves  may  be  labeled  to  represent 
a  particular  plant  food  of  the  soil.    The  shortest  stave  will  limit  the  capacity 
of  the  barrel. 

5.  Make  a  chart  showing  the  relative  amounts  of  plant  food  removed 
from  soil  by  all  the  various  crops  or  products  sold  from  the  farm.    The  per- 
centages may  be  represented  by  bar  graphs  of  different  lengths.    (See  Woll's 
"Productive  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals.") 

6.  Make  another  giving  the  benefits  of  home  mixing  of  fertilizers. 

7.  The  effects  of  humus  on  soils  may  be  worked  out  into  a  good  chart. 

8.  Make  a  chart  comparing  the  methods  of  handling  barnyard  manure. 

9.  Winter  cover  crops  may  form  the  subject  of  a  good  chart. 

10.  Dust  mulch  and  shallow  cultivation  may  be  combined  in  a  single  chart. 

11.  The  benefits  of  drainage;  methods  of  drainage;  cost  of  drainage;  soil 
aeration;  soil  moisture — each  of  these  may  be  the  subject  of  a  special  chart. 

Lantern  Slides  for  the  Teaching  of  Soils. — Schools  supplied 
with  stereopticons  should  have  a  number  of  good  lantern  slides 
showing  the  effects  of  growth  of  crops  by  the  use  of  lime,  fertilizers, 
and  good  tillage.  Contrast  each  of  these,  if  possible,  with  other 
slides.  If  local  pictures  can  be  taken,  the  school  can  make  its  own 
lantern  slides  from  the  negatives.  Take  pictures  showing  the 
growth  of  green  manure  crops,  operations  in  liming,  good  tillage 
implements  on  various  farms  while  in  use,  and  many  other 
local  views. 

The  Value  of  Physics  and  Chemistry  in  the  Study  of  Soils. — 
Much  of  the  work  in  studying  soils  is  founded  upon  principles  iii 
physics  or  involves  a  knowledge  of  chemistry.  It  is,  therefore, 
important  to  have  students  take  these  fundamental  sciences  as 
early  as  possible  in  their  courses.  If  one  or  both  of  these  sciences 


202  HOW  TO  TEACH  SOILS 

can  be  pursued  by  students  preceding  or  paralleling  the  course 
in  soils,  the  students  will  gain  much  more  from  the  soils  course. 

It  is  very  important  that  students  who  are  planning  to  teach 
the  subject  of  soils  should  have  a  knowledge  of  both  physics  and 
chemistry.  Many  of  the  lessons  in  soils  involve  principles  taught 
in  physics,  such  as  porosity,  specific  gravity,  specific  heat, 
evaporation,  and  capillarity.  Chemical  knowledge  is  required  in 
the  thorough  understanding  of  problems  of  soil  fertility  and  the 
relation  of  these  to  crop  production. 

Plot  Trials  for  Teaching  Soils. — Many  lessons  in  soil  manage- 
ment may  be  demonstrated  on  small  plots  in  the  garden  or  land 
laboratory  of  the  school.  Trials  with  small  amounts  of  different 
varieties  of  garden  and  field  crops  may  be  made.  The  effects  of 
fertilizers  of  different  kinds  and  amounts  and  of  lime  may  be  shown 
on  such  plots.  Soil  management  of  various  kinds  may  be  contrasted, 
as  the  effects  of  rolling  and  not  rolling,  the  effect  of  harrowing 
after  rolling,  the  effect  of  subsoiling,  and  the  effect  of  double  plowing. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  some  of  these  trials  run  crosswise  of 
others  (Fig.  123).  For  example,  when  alfalfa  is  sown  at  three 
different  times  to  show  the  effects  of  time  of  seeding,  these  three 
plots  may  be  treated  with  cross  plots  run  at  right  angles  to  the 
other.  One  of  these  cross  plots  has  artificial  inoculation;  another 
is  limed  and  inoculated;  another  is  the  check  plot  and  another  is 
limed  only. 

Soils  Work  in  Rural  Schools. — Many  lessons  on  soils  can  be 
taught  to  students  in  rural  schools.  They  are  close  to  the  soil 
and  yet  know  little  about  it.  Many  of  the  lessons  in  soil  physics 
should  be  taught.  With  simple  apparatus  such  as  lamp  chimneys, 
tomato  cans,  and  small  boxes,  glasses  (Fig.  120),  and  other  cheap 
apparatus  many  experiments  may  be  tried  in  the  school-room 
showing  the  different  kinds  of  soil  moisture,  lessons  in  capillarity, 
percolation,  effects  of  mulching,  effects  of  packing  and  rolling, 
the  bad  effects  of  allowing  soils  to  crust,  the  effects  of  color  on 
soil  temperature,  and  many  others.  Lessons  can  be  made  from 
trials  in  the  community  showing  effects  of  certain  treatments  in 
improvement  of  soils  and  in  maintenance  of  soil  fertility.  Students 
may  be  taught  to  run  levels  for  simple  work  in  terracing  or  con- 
touring of  fields. 

Make  all  the  soil  studies  pursued  in  rural  schools  as  practical 
as  possible.  Base  upon  the  experiences  of  students.  Teach 
a  few  important  lessons  and  stress  these  few  lessons  in  many 


SHORT  COURSES  IN  SOILS  WORK  203 

ways  by  examples  found  on  different  farms.  Suppose  you  wish  to 
teach  students  to  test  soils  for  acidity,  a  few  cents'  worth  of  litmus 
paper  is  all  the  equipment  needed.  Students  may  be  shown  how 
to  make  the  test,  then  each  should  be  required  to  test  one  or  more 
fields  of  his  home  place  and  report  results.  Build  upon  this  trial 
with  lessons  on  liming,  the  effects  of  liming,  the  possible  improve- 
ment of  soil  as  result  of  growing  legume  crops  after  liming.  Then 
the  effects  of  growing  any  crop  desired  because  the  land  has 
been  rejuvenated. 

Teaching  Soils  in  Town  Grades. — The  suggestions  given  under 
the  heading  of  rural  schools  in  this  chapter  should  be  read  again 
in  this  connection.  The  more  simple  lessons  and  experiments  can 
well  be  tried  in  the  grades  of  villages  and  cities.  Pupils  should 
become  familiar  with  different  types  of  soil  and  study  them  by 
examining  the  particles  and  trying  various  experiments  with  them. 
Include  sand,  clay,  silt,  loam,  dark  humus  soils,  etc. 

If  the  students  of  these  grades  are  pursuing  home  projects  in 
gardening,  they  will  be  much  more  interested  in  the  soils  work. 
This  is  a  much  better  way  of  teaching  lessons  in  soils,  i.e.,  in  con- 
nection with  projects  of  growing  garden  crops.  Try  to  make  all 
of  the  lessons  in  soils  given  to  these  children  apply  to  some  project 
which  they  have  tried  or  are  pursuing.  They  may  be  taught 
how  to  make  a  compost  heap  and  use  the  lawn  mowings  and  leaves 
raked  from  lawns  to  produce  humus  for  their  gardens.  All  details 
of  soil  treatment  may  be  taught  (Fig.  124). 

Short  Courses  in  Soils  Work. — As  a  general  thing,  short  courses 
in  agriculture  give  very  little  special  work  on  soil  theories.  Prac- 
tical methods  of  improving  soils  (Fig.  125),  the  special  uses  of 
lime  and  other  liming  problems,  the  use  of  fertilizers  for  special 
crops,  other  special  treatments  of  soils  for  various  crops,  soil 
inoculation  for  legumes,  the  care  and  best  use  of  barnyard  manure, 
the  protection  and  use  of  green  manure — these  and  similar  topics 
may  well  be  offered  in  short  courses  in  regions  where  they  would 
do  the  most  good. 

Use  charts,  lantern  slides,  soil  samples,  lime  samples,  fertilizer 
samples,  specimens  of  crops  suitable  for  growth  for  green  manur- 
ing. Field  trips  should  be  freely  employed  for  the  teaching  of 
practical  short  course  lessons.  Students  may  be  taken  out  in  the 
field  for  exercises  in  terracing  and  drainage.  Places  should  l>e 
found  where  the  short-course  students  can  witness  the  steps  in  the 
rejuvenation  of  depleted  soils. 


264  HOW  TO  TEACH  SOILS 

Let  classes  also  witness  the  use  of  special  forms  of  plows,  sub- 
surface packers,  tractor  attachments,  and  other  machinery  used 
in  the  tillage  of  soils  (Fig.  126). 

Things  to  Discover  in  Soils  Work. — A  few  of  the  many  things 
that  students  should  try  to  discover  in  their  soil  studies  are 
here  suggested: 

(1)  What  crops  are  best  adapted  to  use  on  each  of  the  types  of  soil  on 
your  farm?  (2)  If  certain  crops  which  you  would  like  to  grow  are  unsuccessful, 
determine,  if  possible,  what  amendments  can  be  applied  to  the  soil  to  make  it 
suitable.  (3)  Discover  the  physical  faults  in  your  soil;  if  too  tight  or  too  loose, 
apply  proper  remedies.  (4)  Discover  the  very  best  rotation  system  for  the 
permanent  maintenance  of  your  soils.  (5)  Discover  the  chemical  shortages 
in  your  soil  and  supply  the  proper  fertility.  (6)  Discover  what  legumes  require 
inoculation  beforo  growth  on  your  soils. 

Problems  to  Solve  in  Soils  Work. — Besides  the  discoveries  such 
as  those  mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph  there  are  many 
other  problems  to  solve  which  are  closely  allied  to  farm  manage- 
ment. A  few  are  suggested: 

1.  What  crops  can  be  best  grown  on  lands  which  are  in  danger  of  serious 
erosion? 

2.  How  can  eroded  soils  be  redeemed  yet  produce  crops  during  the  process 
of  redemption? 

3.  How  can  erosion  already  started  be  best  stopped  and  prevented? 
(Figs.  125  to  128.) 

4.  How  can  one  best  determine  the  use  of  fields  which  seem  to  be  non- 
productive for  crops  thus  far  tried  on  them? 

5.  The  best  use  of  marsh  lands  is  a  serious  problem  on  limited  areas  in 
nearly  all  states. 

6.  Light  sandy  soils  offer  serious  problems  in  crop  production. 

7.  Many  special  problems  arise  in  the  growth  of  market  garden  crops 
and  vegetable  gardening,  such  as  the  best  ways  of  increasing  the  humus  con- 
tent, maintaining  friability,  maintaining  soil  moisture,  etc. 

8.  Problems  of  land  drainage  are  often  difficult  to  solve  (Fig.  129).    Will 
it  pay  to  underdrain  the  land?    Where  can  the  water  be  carried?    How  can  I 
get  my  neighbor  to  cooperate?     How  can  I  drain  off  water  without  his 
cooperation? 

9.  Would  subsoiling  increase  yield  of  crops  enough  to  pay  for  the  labor? 
10.  Would  liming  of  land  increase  yields  enough  to  pay  for  the  cost? 

Discussions  Relating  to  Soils. — Teach  students  to  discuss  soil 
problems  at  home.  For  example,  have  the  class  look  over  such 
soils  problems  as  those  suggested  in  the  preceding  paragraph  and 
such  points  as  those  suggested  in  former  paragraphs.  Get 
them  to  take  up  these  matters  with  their  parents  and  neighbors. 
This  will  start  considerable  discussion  among  the  people.  It  may 
cause  a  number  of  them  to  adopt  better  methods  of  farming. 
Lack  of  discussion  is  often  one  of  the  chief  drawbacks  to  sue- 


DISCUSSIONS  RELATING  TO  SOILS 


265 


cessful  farming.     The  thoughtful  farmer  ponders  over  many  of 
these  problems  but  is  uncertain  as  to  the  best  steps  to  take. 


FIG.   129. — Students  should  practice  running  levels  for  drainage  lines.     (E.  R.  Thompson, 

Oklu.) 


Fio.   130. — Student  practice  work  on  the  school  land.     (P.  L.  Guilbeau,  La.) 

Discussion  will  aid  materially  in  reaching  satisfactory  conclusions. 
Get  each  member  of  the  class  to  bring  to  the  school  many  soil 


2(>6 


HOW  TO  TEACH  SOILS 


problems  of  his  own  home  place.  Get  each  to  inquire  at  home  what 
soil  problems  and  difficulties  are  in  the  minds  of  the  owners. 
When  these  matters  are  brought  before  the  class  for  solution  they 
will  stimulate  much  thought  among  the  members  and  much  profit- 
able discussion  may  result. 

Some  debatable  topics  are  plowing  in  fall  or  spring;  early  and 

late  plowing  for  wheat;  laying  tile  in  fall  or  spring;  time  for  plowing 

under  a  cover  crop;  harrowing  soil  before  plowing.  Think  of  others.4 

Things  to  Read  in  Soil  Studies. — After  the  members  of  the  class 

have  been  induced  to  bring  to 
the  school  many  home  farm 
problems,  suitable  references  may 
be  given  them  for  reading  about 
these  problems.  Some  of  the 
exact  problems  are  doubtless  dis- 
cussed in  bulletins  and  books 
to  which  the  instructor  can  make 
reference.  Students  should  be 
taught  to  look  up  many  readings 
of  this  kind  through  the  use  of 
indexes  of  books  and  the  tables 
of  contents  of  bulletins. 

Make  lists  of  suitable  articles 
on  soil  problems  in  the  current 
agricultural  journals.  The  topics 
discussed  should  be  entered  on 
filing  cards  with  proper  refer- 
ences. These  cards  may  be  used 

in  making  reading  assignments  to  members  of  the  soils  class. 
People  of  the  community  desiring  to  pursue  reading  in  connec- 
tion with  soils  may  be  given  bulletins  relating  to  the  special  topics 
they  wish  to  investigate.    The  bulletins  may  be  issued  on  library 
cards  and  returned  according  to  the  system  of  circulating  libraries. 
Observations  in  Soils  Work. — When  students  have  been  well 
taught  to  observe  carefully  the  many  points  in  connection  with 
soils  work,  many  valuable  lessons  may  be  gained  therefrom.    They 
should  observe  closely  the  differences  in  soils  and  where  one  type 
blends  into  another.    They  should  observe  the  effects  of  harrowing 
on  soils  that  are  rather  wet  and  see  how  quickly  the  water  will 
disappear  downward.     They  should  observe  the  effects  of  lime 
4  Sec  topics  for  debate  in  Chapter  XI. 


Fin.  131. — Pursuing  home  projects  for  profit 

induces  students  to  perform  such  work  as 

spreading  manure  without  objecting.     (E. 

R.  Thompson,  Okla.) 


REFERENCE  BOOKS  ON  SOILS 


207 


when  applied  to  heavy  clay  soils  in  the  field.  They  should  observe 
the  direct  influence  of  heavy  applications  of  manure  for  such 
special  crops  as  asparagus,  strawberries,  cabbages,  and  corn.  They 
should  observe  the  effects  of  sowing  small  grains  on  land  that  is 
too  loose  as  compared  with  well-packed  soil.  They  should  observe 
the  special  effects  of  any  usual  or  unusual  forms  of  tillage.  They 
should  observe  the  effects  of  growing  farm  crops  after  clover  in 
rotation  systems. 

Things  to  Do  in  Soils  Work. — Farmers  and  students  who  are 
to  work  with  soils  should  learn  many  operations  by  frequent  prac- 
tice, or  in  other  ways,  to  make  them  skilful  in  soil  operations 
(Figs.  130  and  131).  Learn  to  run  straight  furrows  in  laying  off 
lands  for  plowing.  Learn  to  mark  off  rows  well  for  planting  fields. 


Fie:.    i:>2. — This  student  learned  at  se-hool  how  to  operate  and  repair  a  tractor.     He  plowed 

laud  for  a  neighbor  who  owned  the  tractor,  then  renteel  it  and  plowed  for  his  own  project, 

for  his  father,  and  for  others. 

Learn  to  detect  when  soils  arc  too  wet  or  too  dry  for  proper  hand- 
ling. Learn  to  plow  well  (Fig.  132),  particularly  in  the  turning 
under  of  crops  and  heavy  applications  of  manure.  Learn  to  pre- 
pare seed-beds  well.  Learn  to  maintain  soil  mulches  perfectly. 
Learn  to  grow  crops  under  level  culture  methods.  Learn  to  kill 
weeds  before  they  can  be  seen.  Learn  to  handle  manure  without 
allowing  it  to  leach  or  to  heat.  Learn  to  lay  tile  drains  well. 
Learn  to  use  the  dry-land  farming  methods  even  in  humid  climates. 
Many  other  practices  in  soils  may  be  suggested  by  instructors,  and 
skilful  operations  may  be  learned  by  students. 

Reference  Books  on  Soils.5 — Include  on  the  reference  shelves 
books  on  soils  experiments  at  the  leading  experiment   stations; 

5  See  also  Chapter  XVII. 


268  HOW  TO  TEACH  SOILS 

Ixxiks  on  soils  physics;  books  on  farm  management  with  reference 
to  special  types  of  farming;  books  on  farm  management  with 
reference  to  crop  rotations  and  soil  maintenance;  books  on  fertil- 
izers and  soil  fertility. 

Bulletins  on  Soils.6 — Secure  the  latest  lists  of  farmers '  bulletins 
relating  to  soils  and  fertilizers  from  each  of  the  state  experiment 
stations  and  from  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
The  latter  may  be  obtained  from  the  office  of  Agricultural  Educa- 
tion in  the  States  Relations  Service.  Send  for  all  of  the  available 
bulletins  relating  to  the  general  subject  of  soils  and  soil  fertility. 
These  may  then  be  classified  according  to  the  best  system  as 
suggested  in  another  chapter  of  this  book. 

Journals  Relating  to  Soils.6 — A  number  of  periodicals  are  pub- 
lished for  farmers  and  for  scientists  which  contain  departments 
of  miscellaneous  articles  on  soils.  Select  the  best  of  these  for  the 
particular  purposes  of  the  school.  If  these  are  carefully  indexed 
from  time  to  time,  students  can  make  good  use  of  them  in  their 
work.  As  each  periodical  appears  the  articles  relating  to  soils 
and  fertilizers  may  be  mentioned  on  sheets  which  are  posted  in  a 
convenient  place  for  the  use  of  all.  Let  articles  from  these  period- 
icals be  reported  to  the  class  by  certain  students  to  whom  the 
articles  are  assigned  for  reading. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  laboratory  apparatus  to  be  used  in  teaching  soils,  that 
you  could  make  or  have  students  make. 

2.  Make  one  or  more  of  these  pieces  of  apparatus. 

3.  Take  twenty  samples  of  soils  and  subsoil,  using  several  methods. 

4.  Get  materials  and  weigh  out  quantities  sufficient  to  make  one  hundred 
pounds  of  a  definite  composition,  as  2-8-6.    Mix  these  in  the  presence  of  the 
class  or  others. 

5.  Make  three  or  more  soils  charts  useful  in  class-room  or  fanners'  meetings 

6.  Conduct  a  lime  survey  for  a  Limited  area. 

7.  Make  three  or  more  type  lessons  in  soils. 

8.  Make  a  collection  of  soil  samples,  by  mail  or  otherwise,  including  all 
the  chief  types  of  the  state. 

9.  Write  to  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Soils  for  a  list  of  the  soils  maps  of  your 
state  and  get  those  which  will  be  most  valuable  to  you. 

10.  Perform  three   or   more  of   the  laboratory  exercises   in  the   presence 
of  your  class  or  others  for  practice  in  this  kind  of  work. 

11.  Conduct  an  exercise  for  studying  soils  in  the  field. 

12.  Conduct  a  soil  survey  with  such  an  outline  as  given  in  this  chapter. 

13.  Make  a  drawing  of  a  number  of  plots  on  the  school  land  laboratory 
for  the  growth  of  plants  used  in  the  study  of  soils.     Plan  all  details. 

14.  From  the  list   of   laboratory  exercises  given  here  formulate  a  course 
which  you  would  give. 

8  See  also  Chapter  XVII. 


QUESTIONS  269 

QUESTIONS 

1.  State  the  specific  aim  in  the  study  of  soils. 

2.  What  is  the  scope  of  this  subject? 

3.  Tell  something  of  the  relation  of  soils  to  other  agricultural  subjects. 

4.  Suggest  special  methods  in  teaching  soils. 

5.  Give  a  list  of  equipment  for  the  course  in  soils  work. 

6.  Mention  a  number  of  questions  which  arise  while  judging  soil  conditions 

in  the  field. 

7.  Give  points  for  an  outline  of  a  lime  survey. 

8.  Mention  several  kinds  of  soil  containers:    (a)  for  passing  around  samples 

in  the  laboratory;  (b)  for  storing  soils  in  the  laboratory;  (r)  for  exhibiting 
soil  types  on  the  shelves. 

9.  Review  a  type  lesson  in  soils. 

10.  Tell  how  to  prepare  a  garden  compost. 

11.  Tell  how  to  test  soils  for  acidity. 

12.  Tell  how  to  test  soils  for  lime. 

13.  Give  points  to  be  included  in  a  soil  survey. 

14.  Suggest  several  subjects  for  soil  charts. 

15.  How  may  lantern  slides  be  useful  in  teaching  soils? 

16.  Tell  of  the  value  of  physics  and  chemistry  in  the  study  of  soils. 

17.  Of  what  value  are  plot  trials  in  studying  soils? 

18.  Give  suggestions  for  the  teaching  of  soils  in  rural  schools;  in  town  grades. 

19.  Tell  something  of  the  content  of  a  short  course  in  soils  in  your  locality. 

20.  Suggest  things  to  discover  in  soils  work. 

21.  What  are  some  of  the  problems  to  be  solved  by  students  in  soils  w-ork? 

22.  How  can  you   start  discussions   related  to  soils,   among  students  anc 

their  parents? 

23.  Give  examples  of  supplementary  reading  related  to  soil  studies. 

24.  What  observations  should  students  be  taught  to  make  in  this  subject? 


CHAPTER  XIII 
HOW  TO  CONDUCT  HOME  PROJECTS 

A  homo  project  should  include  each  of  the  following:  (1)  There  must  be 
a  plan  of  work  covering  a  season  or  other  extended  period  of  time;  (2)  it  must 
be  a  part  of  the  instruction  in  agriculture  of  the  school;  (3)  there  must  be  a 
problem  more  or  less  new  to  the  pupil;  (4)  the  parents  and  pupil  should  agree 
with  the  teacher  upon  the  plan;  (5)  some  competent  person  must  supervise  the 
home  work;  (G)  detailed  records  of  time,  method,  cost,  and  income  must  be 
correctly  kept  on  suitable  forms;  (7)  a  written  report  based  on  the  record  must 
be  submitted  to  the  teacher. 

If  a  project  is  participated  in  by  several  students  as  a  class  or  part  of  a 
class,  it  would  be  considered  a  (jroup  jrrojcd.  If  the  essential  parts  of  the  proj- 
ect are  the  work  of  one  pupil,  it  would  be  called  an  indindual  project.  Accord- 
ing to  the  chief  aim,  projects  may  be  classified  as  (a)  productive  projects  in 
which  the  chief  aim  is  to  produce  any  agricultural  product  at  a  profit;  (b)  trial 
projects  in  which  the  chief  aim  is  to  test  materials  and  methods  in  agricultural 
practice  new  to  the  student;  (c)  improvement  projects  in  which  the  chief  aim 
is  to  make  improvement  with  hope  of  little  immediate  return;  and  (d)  manage- 
ment projects  in  which  the  chief  aim  is  to  apply  efficiently  the  general  principles 
of  farm  management. — -Condensed  from  Report  on  Agriculture  of  the  N.  E.  A. 
Commission  on  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education. 

So  MUCH  has  been  said  in  recent  years  regarding  the  value  of 
teaching  agriculture  by  home  project  methods  that  little  need  be 
said  here  regarding  that  phase  of  the  subject.  It  was  in  the  field 
of  agriculture  that  the  home  project  method  of  instruction  was 
first  successfully  demonstrated.  Agricultural  projects  have  so 
frequently  formed  the  basis  for  school-room  instruction  that  few 
teachers  will  fail  to  realize  the  value  of  this  plan  of  carrying  on 
the  school  work. 

The  term  project  as  here  used  involves  the  time  element.  An 
exercise  performed  in  one  laboratory  period  should  not  be  consid- 
ered a  project.  A  number  of  exercises  are  sometimes  combined 
and  called  a  project,  if  they  are  closely  connected  with  each  other 
and  lead  to  the  same  general  end  or  aim. 

In  the  broad  sense,  a  project  is  a  far-reaching  aim.  It  is  usually 
not  made  up  of  a  series  of  similar  exercises,  but  includes  all  studies, 
exercises,  practices,  operations — alike  and  unlike — which  lead  to 
a  definite  aim  in  the  mind  of  the  person  doing  these  things. 

Agricultural  projects,  particularly  home  projects,  pursued  by 
students  who  are  studying  agriculture  should  have  the  profit  factor 
in  them;  as  growing  a  crop  of  wheat  for  profit,  raising  a  litter  of 
pigs  for  profit,  fattening  a  bunch  of  steers  for  profit,  renovating 
an  apple  orchard  for  profit. 
270 


WHO  AGREES  TO  THE  PROJECT  AND  ITS  SCOPE?      271 

Improvement  projects  which  do  not  always  include  the  profit 
element  are  sometimes  pursue*!  by  students.  Sometimes  me- 
chanical projects  are  really,  in  the  end,  improvement  projects  or 
have  maintenance  features  in  place  of  the  profit  features. 

Major  and  Minor  Projects. — When  students  are  performing 
long-time  projects  in  any  field  of  agriculture,  these  projects  an; 
often  coextensive  with  the  study  of  the  particular  subject  in 
which  that  project  falls,  as  laid  down  in  the  curriculum  of  the 
school.  If  a  high  school  student,  for  example,  is  pursuing  the  sub- 
ject of  field  crops  for  one  year  in  his  school  course,  he  may  raise 
an  annual  crop  as  his  project — corn,  wheat,  potatoes,  cotton. 
Such  projects  may  be  designated  Jis  major  projects.  These  may 
or  may  not  continue  longer  than  the  time  devoted  to  the  particular 
branch  in  the  course.  When  horticulture  is  taught  for  half  a  year 
in  the  school  the  student  may  pursue  a  project  in  orcharding  which 
will  continue  for  one  or  more  years. 

The  term  minor  project  is  used  in  two  senses:  (1)  It  is  some 
operation  or  part  of  a  major  project,  as  spraying  an  orchard  or 
marketing  the  crop;  (2)  it  is  a  short-time  project  which  is  complete 
in  itself,  as  buying  a  bunch  of  pigs  and  feeding  them  one  month 
and  selling  them  again. 

Scope  of  Projects. — Whenever  a  student  undertakes  a  project 
in  agriculture  he  should  formulate  definitely  the  scope  of  the 
project,  the  limit  of  time — when  it  is  to  begin  and  when  it  is 
to  end;  the  factors,  elements,  animals,  or  plants  which  are  to  l>e 
concerned  in  it. 

The  statement  of  the  scope  should  be  such  that  it  will  be  con- 
sistent with  the  seasons,  with  the  probable  development  of  the 
crop,  and  of  the  animals  being  grown.  It  should  be  such  that  the 
probabilities  of  profit  are  favorable. 

Who  Agrees  to  the  Project  and  Its  Scope? — When  students  are 
living  at  home  and  studying  agriculture  in  a  school  they  may 
readily  conduct  home  projects  which  are  pursued  all  or  part  of  the 
time  during  school  months.  They  can  pursue  such  projects  more 
intensively  during  vacation  months.  The  projects  in  such  cases 
should  be  planned  in  cooperation  with  the  parents  and  the  agri- 
cultural instructor.  All  three  should  agree  to  the  main  features 
to  be  included  in  the  project  and  the  scope  which  the  project 
is  to  cover.  The  father  agrees  to  supply  operating  capital  and  the 
place  for  the  working  out  of  the  project.  The  income  derived  from 
the  project  is  to  be  used  first  to  pay  all  costs  of  the  project  and 


272  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  HOME  PROJECTS 

second,  to  pay  the  student  for  his  labor,  and  third,  to  pay  profits 
for  good  management. 

The  student  and  father  both  agree  to  follow  the  instructions 
of  the  teacher  and  to  perform  the  operations  in  the  project  accord- 
ing to  the  best  methods  laid  down  in  the  references  given  by  the 
teacher  of  agriculture. 

Writing  the  Plans  of  the  Project. — Not  only  the  scope  of  the 
time  and  field  to  be  covered  by  the  project,  but  also  the  plans  or 
steps  to  be  followed  in  pursuing  the  work  should  be  written  at  the 
beginning  or  very  soon  afterwards.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the 
steps  be  inflexible.  Indeed,  they  should  be  quite  flexible  and  sub- 
ject to  new  conditions  that  arise  from  time  to  time  in  the  progress 
of  the  work.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  no  "cut  and  dried"  plan  can  be 
followed  absolutely. 

The  value  of  having  a  plan  made  in  advance  helps  both  the 
student  and  the  instructor  to  know  about  what  is  to  be  the  progress 
of  the  work.  The  parent  also  will  know  better  what  is  expected  of 
the  student.  In  one  sense,  it  fixes  the  scope  of  the  work  better 
in  the  mind  of  the  student  and  his  father. 

Project  Operations. — After  the  scope  of  the  project  has  been 
determined,  the  student,  with  the  aid  of  the  instructor,  should  first 
write  out  the  steps  in  the  project  from  beginning  to  end.  These 
steps  are  really  the  project  operations  taken  in  order  from  begin- 
ning to  end.  They  must  have  seasonal  sequence,  particularly  if 
they  are  crop  projects.  The  steps  can  be  foreseen,  to  a  great  extent, 
when  the  project  is  planned.  Of  course,  minor  steps  may  be  added 
later.  When  examined  as  a  whole,  some  changes  may  be  suggested 
and  perhaps  new  or  different  steps  may  be  planned  for  part  of  the 
work.  The  student  may  have  omitted  some  important  elements, 
as  spraying,  the  use  of  fertilizers,  the  growing  of  a  cover  crop,  or 
other  step  necessary  for  the  success  of  the  project.  After  the  steps 
are  revised  and  ready  to  be  copied  again,  they  should  be  written 
in  the  student's  permanent  project  book. 

Topics  for  Study  Involved  in  Each  Operation. — The  instructor 
should  show  the  student  how  to  choose  topics  for  study  under  each 
step  of  the  project  work.  A  rather  complete  list  of  these  topics 
should  be  written  in  a  notebook  for  each  of  the  project  operations. 
After  the  student  has  been  shown  howto  beginhis  choiceof  topics  he 
may  beallowed  to  choose  topics  for  the  remaining  steps  in  his  project. 

The  student  and  instruct  or  working  together  should  review  care- 
fully all  of  the  lists  of  topics  and  revise  them.  These  should  then  be 


KEEPING  NOTES  OF  TOPICS  STUDIED  273 

written  up  carefully  in  such  form  as  to  leave  room  for  citations,  or 
references,  to  books  and  bulletins  where  the  topics  are  well  discussed. 

Making  Citations  to  Project  Topics. — First,  the  instructor  may 
suggest  to  the  student  a  number  of  books  and  bulletins  which  dis- 
cuss the  general  subject  of  the  whole  project.  For  example,  if 
the  project  consists  in  growing  a  field  of  potatoes  for  profit,  the 
instructor  may  give  the  student  a  list  of  references  where  potato 
growing  is  well  considered — a  few  farmers'  bulletins,  certain  books 
devoted  to  potatoes,  as  Gilford  and  Grub,  and  Frazier.  For  the 
fertilizing  of  potatoes  one  or  two  authors  on  fertilizers  might  be 
cited.  Some  books  on  general  field  crops  might  be  included  in 
the  list  given  to  the  student.  After  receiving  this  list  from  the 
instructor,  the  student  should  take  each  of  the  topics,  find  where 
they  are  discussed  in  several  of  these  bulletins  and  books  and  write, 
in  a  suitable  place,  after  the  topics  the  author  and  page.  Without 
stopping  to  study  these,  he  may  go  on  through  the  entire  list  of 
topics  and  write  out  the  citations  in  definite  form  for  future  study. 

Project  Book  Forms. — Various  project  books  are  published  or 
forms  suggested  by  state  supervisors,  by  teacher  training  depart- 
ments in  colleges,  and  by  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Edu- 
cation. The  outlines  suggested  by  the  plans  published  in  this 
chapter  are  not  intended  to  be  followed  by  students  in  their  actual 
pursuits  of  project  work.  They  are  merely  suggestive  and  should 
be  revised  and  written  into  the  student's  notebook,  or  project  book. 

Published  Outlines  of  Projects.1 — Several  state  boards  for 
vocational  education  have  published  outlines  for  project  studies. 
Write  to  your  state  supervisor  for  such  as  are  available.  The 
published  outlines  should  not  be  considered  as  suitable  to  all 
schools  nor  to  all  farms  where  such  projects  are  pursued.  They 
should  be  revised  to  meet  special  conditions.  Even  the  scope  of 
the  outline  may  not  be  the  same  as  will  be  desired  by  the  student, 
parent,  and  instructor.  The  purpose  of  published  outlines  is  to 
suggest  to  students  topics  for  projects,  steps  in  the  operation, 
topics  which  m&y  or  may  not  be  included,  and  perhaps  direct  the 
student  roughly  in  the  details  of  making  citations. 

After  the  student  and  instructor  revise  one  of  these  published 
outlines  to  suit  the  particular  farm  where  the  project  is  to  be  pur- 
sued, it  is  still  subject  to  further  revision  as  the  project  progresses. 

Keeping  Notes  of  Topics  Studied. — If  state  forms  are  published 
for  keeping  notes  on  the  topics  studied,  they  should  be  used  by 

1  See  Lathrop's  "  Manual  and  Notebook  on  Field  Crops." 
18 


274  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  HOME  PROJECTS 

students  in  schools.  If  no  such  forms  arc  published,  the  instructor 
should  designate  what  type  of  notebook  will  be  best  for  the  purpose 
and  topics  to  be  outlined.  Topics  studied  should  be  outlined 
in  a  notebook.  Perhaps  the  notes  that  differ  from  each  citation 
for  that  topic  may  be  kept  distinct,  but  not  necessarily  so.  These 
notes  should  be  used  by  students  in  reporting  their  topics  to  the 
class.  Some  state  forms  require  that  the  notes  on  citations  from 
different  places  be  kept  distinct.  When  this  plan  is  followed,  the 
number  of  the  bulletin  and  the  pages  read  should  be  given  for 
each  outline  or  title  studied.  If  the  references  are  to  books,  papers, 
and  magazines,  the  citations  in  each  case  should  be  written  with 
the  notes  taken  by  the  student  in  studying  that  topic. 

Record  of  Performance  of  Project  Operations. — Students 
should  be  taught  to  keep  notes  under  such  a  head  as  this,  in  their 
notebooks  or  in  special  state  forms.  If  the  project  be  with  crops, 
the  kind  of  notes  taken  will  be  very  different  from  those  taken  with 
animal  projects.  In  the  latter  type  of  projects  the  notes  will 
relate  more  to  daily  operations,  changes  in  operations,  variations 
in  plans,  and  reasons  for  them. 

Observations  on  the  Project. — One  section  of  the  student's 
notebook  should  be  devoted  to  observations  on  the  project  and 
may  be  headed  in  this  way  if  desired.  Many  observations  may  be 
made  which  will  be  of  value  to  the  student  making  them.  Students 
should  be  encouraged  to  become  observant  and  should  be  taught 
to  write  the  notes  on  their  observations  intelligently  and  in  good 
form  for  use  in  reporting  to  the  class,  or  to  the  instructor  from 
time  to  time. 

Summary  of  a  Project  in  Crop  Production. — The  student 
should  keep  notes  for  filling  an  outline  in  his  notebook  which  would 
include  a  number  of  points  such  as  the  following: 

1.  Total  area  in  project.  10.  Not  profits  (total  charge  less  total 

2.  Total  yield.  credits). 

.'3.  Pounds  of  seed  used.  11.  Net  loss  (total  credits  less  total 

4.  Tons  of  manure  used.  charge). 

f>.  Pounds  of  fertilizer  used.  12.  Number  of  man-hours. 

(i.  Charge  for  use  of  land.  13.  Labor  of  self. 

7.  Total  value  of  the  crop.  14.  Labor  of  other  help. 

8.  Total   cost   to  grow  and  market  15.  Total  number  of  horse-hours. 

main  crop.  16.   Number  of  tractor-hours. 

9.  Returns     from     by-products,    as      17.  Machinery  charge. 

stover,  straw,  etc. 

Summary  of  a  Livestock  Project. — Keep  notes  for  filling  a  re- 
port or  summary  of  a  livestock  project,  including  such  points  as 
the  following: 


RESULTS  OF  ENTERPRISE  IN  CROP  PRODUCTION      275 


9.  Appreciation  iti  value  of  livestock. 

10.  Pounds  of  grain  (concentrates  fed 

to  livestock). 

11.  Pounds  of  roughage  fed  to  live- 

stock. 

12.  Allowance*  for  nasturage  of  live- 

stock. 

13.  Total    number   of   man-hours   of 

labor. 

14.  Labor  of  self. 

lf>.   Ijabnr  of  other  help. 

Hi.  Total  number  of  horse-hours. 

17.  Net  gain  or  loss. 


1.  Number  of  animals  at  the  Ix-gin- 

ning  of  the  project. 

2.  Number  near  close  of  the  project . 

3.  Average  number  during  the  proj- 

ect. 

4.  Total   production   in   pounds   of 

pork,  of  milk,  of  beef,  dozens 

of  eggs. 
/>.  Cost    of    producing    milk,    eggs, 

beef,  pork,  etc. 
ti.  Total  cost  of  keeping  livestock. 

7.  Depreciation  on  livestock. 

8.  Value   of   products   marketed   or 

used  (eggs,  pork, beef,  milk,etc. ). 

Uniformity  in  Prices  Allowed  for  Feed  and  Labor. — In  the  forms 
printed  by  some  states  for  making  a  summary  of  projects,  sometimes 
the  prices  to  be  allowed  per  hour  for  horse  labor,  for  student  lal>or, 
and  for  hired  labor  are  fixed.  This  is  for  the  sake  of  uniformity 
in  reports  handed  to  the  state  departments  from  all  the  schools. 

In  like  manner,  the  prices  to  be  allowed  bystudents  for  pasturage 
of  various  kinds  and  for  different  types  of  animals  are  sometimes 
designated  by  state  authorities.  In  cases  where  prices  are  not  thus 
fixed,  the  rates  allowed  in  the  reports  should  be  uniform  in  each  school. 
Some  idea  of  the  amount  to  be  allowed  may  be  obtained  by  getting 
the  forms  from  other  states  which  publish  them  freely.  Write  to 
your  state  supervisor  or  to  states  where  prices  have  been  designated. 

Prices  for  feed  may  be  determined  very  closely  by  market 
values,  which  vary  from  time  to  time.  Really  the  student  should 
use  actual  cost  values  for  all  feed  which  is  purchased  in  the  market. 
It  is  for  feeds  which  are  grown  upon  the  farm  that  standard  prices 
or  uniform  prices  should  be  fixed. 

Analyzing  the  Results  of  the  Enterprise  in  Crop  Production.— 
The  student  should  keep  notes  of  all  details  concerning  his  project 
in  suitable  form  so  that  the  results  can  be  carefully  analyzed  and 
a  report  made  which  would  include  such  points  as  the  following: 

per  cent  of 


1.  Yield  per  acre. 

2.  Amount  of  seed  per  acre. 

3.  Tons  of  manure  JKT  acre. 

4.  Pounds  of  fertilizer  per  acre. 

5.  Charge  for  use  of  land  per  aero. 

6.  Cost    per   acre    of    growing    and 

marketing  the  main  crop. 

7.  Cost  per  acre  of  production  of  by- 

products (straw,  stover,  etc.). 

8.  Cost  per  unit  of  main  product  (as 

ton,  bushel,  etc.). 

9.  Cost    per    unit    allowed    for   by- 

products   (divide   8   and   9   on 
market  value  basis). 


10.  Rent  of  land  is  what 

total  cost  of  crop? 

11.  Labor  cost    is  what    per   cent    of 

total  cost? 

12.  Fertilizer  cost  is  what  JHT  cent  of 

total  cost? 

13.  Cost  of  equipment  per  acre. 

14.  Human-hours  per  acre. 

15.  Horse-hours  per  acre. 

16.  Profit  or  loss  per  acre. 

17.  Profit  per  man-hour. 


276 


HOW  TO  CONDUCT  HOME  PROJECTS 


Analyzing  the  Results  of  a  Livestock  Enterprise. — Keep  full 
notes  so  that  the  following  details  and  others  may  be  gleaned  and 
reported  in  the  final  analysis: 

1.  Pounds  of  milk  per  cow;  pounds 

of  meat  per  head;  number  of 
eggs  per  hen. 

2.  Pounds  of  butter  fat  per  cow  (test 

X  weight  of  milk). 

3.  Average  test  of  milk  produced. 

4.  Value  of  products:   eggs  per  hen, 

milk  per  cow,  meat  per  hoad. 

5.  Cost  of  products:    cwt.  of  milk, 

of  meat,  dozens  of  eggs. 


7.  Pounds  of  concentrates  per  hen, 

hog,  cow,  etc. 

8.  Cost  of  roughage  (or  litter)  per 

hen,  hog,  cow,  etc. 

9.  Cost   of   pasture   per   hen,   hog, 

cow,  etc. 

10.  Net  profit  or  loss  per  head. 

11.  Profit  per  hour  of  human  labor. 

12.  Hours  of  man  labor  per  head  o: 

per  hundred  hens. 


6.  Costof keepinga cow,hog,hen,etc. 

Keeping  Records  in  Project  Work. — If  reports  such  as  are  sug- 
gested under  the  foregoing  headings  are  to  be  made  at  the  close 


Fio.  133. — This  student  rented  his  father's  equipment  and  produced  a  large  field  of  wheat 
with  profit.  Much  of  the  work  of  a  winter  wheat  project  falls  in  the  vacation  season. 

(Avery  Co.) 

of  the  project,  it  will  be  necessary  for  students  to  keep  records  of 
many  things.  In  most  cases  daily  records  of  items  will  be  necessary. 

Labor  records  should  show  how  much  time  was  put  upon  the 
project  by  the  student  himself  and  by  others.  The  kind  of  work 
performed  should  also  be  shown  on  this  record  sheet.  The  price 
allowed  per  hour  for  the  labor  is  to  be  stated. 

Horse  labor  used  in  the  project  should  be  shown  by  dates  and 
the  kind  of  work  being  done  each  day,  as  preparing  fields  for  seed- 
ing, hauling  manure,  planting  crop,  harvesting  or  marketing. 
The  price  per  horse-hour  is  to  be  stated. 

Tractor  work,  if  any,  should  be  charged  up  against  the  project. 
Give  rate  per  hour,  kind  of  work,  and  number  of  hours  (Fig.  133). 


SPECIAL  FORMS  FOR  OTHER  PROJECTS  277 

Feed  Record  Forms. — In  animal  projects  it  is  important  that 
accurate  records  be  kept  of  the  feed  of  different  kinds  which  is 
used  and  the  prices  charged  for  the  feed.  The  feed  may  lx>  grouped 
under  three  main  heads;  concentrates,  roughage,  and  pasturage. 
Sometimes  it  is  advisable  to  include  special  items  for  bedding,  for 
slops  or  other  wastes,  for  root  crops,  etc.  Ruled  forms  may  l>e 
made  so  that  weights  of  feed  may  be  entered  on  each  day  of  the 
month  and  for  each  of  the  twelve  months  of  the  year.  Prices  per 
pound  may  be  indicated  at  the  bottom  of  the  column  for  each 
month.  A  summary  of  the  feeding  may  be  made  for  each  month. 
This  will  make  easy  the  final  summary  at  the  close  of  the  project. 

Milk  and  Butter  Records. — In  dairy  projects  (Figs.  140  and  141), 
milk  records  should  be  kept  either  weekly  or  daily.  The  weights 
should  be  recorded  for  each  milking,  about  one  day  a  week,  and  but- 
ter fat  tests  should  be  recorded  on  the  same  dates  for  each  test  made. 
Multiply  the  weights  if  made  one  day  a  week  by  seven  to  get  the 
total  weight  of  milk  for  the  week.  Multiply  the  percentages  of 
fat  shown  by  the  test  by  the  weight  of  milk  for  a  week  to  get  the 
butter  fat  production  for  the  week.  Add  the  daily  or  weekly  pro- 
duction of  milk  and  fat  to  get  the  yields  in  these  products  for  a  month. 

The  cost  of  feed  for  any  individual  cow  each  month  may  be 
compared  with  her  production  computed  at  market  prices.  The 
profit  or  loss  from  each  cow  for  each  month  is  thus  determined. 
Suitable  forms  for  this  work  may  be  obtained  from  the  dairy 
divisions  of  state  experiment  stations  and  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

Records  of  Weight  of  Animals. — In  feeding  experiments  with 
pigs,  sheep,  beef  cattle  (Figs.  134  and  135),  etc.,  stated  periods 
for  weighing  the  animals  to  obtain  results  of  feeding  should  be 
decided  upon  in  advance.  Suppose  weighings  are  to  be  made  once 
a  month  or  once  a  week,  suitable  forms  may  be  easily  ruled  on 
sheets  fastened  to  a  board  which  will  hang  on  a  wall  or  other  con- 
venient place.  Copies  of  the  weight  should  be  transcribed  by  the 
student  to  the  project  record  book  to  prevent  loss. 

Poultry  Records. — In  conducting  poultry  projects  forms  should 
be  made  or  published  forms  may  be  obtained  to  record  easily  the 
number  of  eggs  produced,  raising  of  chicks,  etc. 

Forms  are  published  for  keeping  records  of  incubators 
and  brooders. 

Special  Forms  for  Other  Projects. — It  will  be  easy  for  a  student 
or  his  instructor  to  devise  suitable  forms  for  use  in  keeping  records 


278 


HOW  TO  CONDUCT  HOME  PROJECTS 


for  any  special  projects  that  are  undertaken.  It  is  good  practice 
for  a  student  to  plan  his  own  forms  for  record  keeping.  Let  the 
records  be  ruled  to  suit  the  project  and  placed  where  they  will  be 
convenient  for  use. 

Charge  for  Use  of  Machinery. — Make  memoranda  on  some 
simple  ruled  form  for  keeping  a  record  of  the  kinds  and  amounts 


Fio.   134. — The  animal  husbandry  class  of  the  high  school  fed  these  four  steers  as  a  group 
project.     (<).  E.  Stephel,  Minn.) 


FKL  135. — The  school  steers  were  slaughtered,  the  meat  sold,  posts  and  returns  calculated, 
and  profit  .shown.  The  agriculture  teacher  was  an  expert  in  animal  feeding  and  in  meats. 

(U.  K.  Stephel.) 

of  use  of  farm  machines  (Fig.  136).  The  number  of  hours  that 
each  machine1  is  used  should  be  recorded.  Note  the  condition  of 
the  machine  at  the  time.  State  the  price  to  be  allowed  for  use  of 
machines  of  each  kind. 

Cost  Accounting. — Many  of  the  elements  in  cost  accounting  have 
been  suggested  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs.  If  complete  records 
are  kept  of  the  different  elements  which  enter  into  the  production 


COST  ACCOUNTING 


279 


I'li:.  l.'id. —  Some  pictures  taken  <.f  the  different  stages  in  the  progress  of  each  studen'' 
project.  These  pictures  run  be  mounted  on  record  charts  in  the  school-room,  used  in  lh< 
student's  final  report,  and  published  in  local  press  from  time  to  time.  i.l.  B.  Holler,  \a." 

of  any  crop  or  farm  product,  the  summary  of  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion can  easily  be  calculated  at  any  time  for  any  pven  period. 


280 


HOW  TO  CONDUCT  HOME  PROJECTS 


It  is  important  that  the  forms  which  arc  used  punctually  to 
keep  accounts  of  different  items  of  expense  be  filled.  If  this  is  done 
regularly,  the  student  will  not  feel  that  cost  accounting  is  a  diffi- 
cult task.  Students  should  be  taught  to  keep  records  carefully 
and  yet  they  should  not  be  made  to  feel  that  the  drudgery  is  so 
great  as  to  make  them  dislike  the  work  and  declare  they  will  never 
keep  such  records  when  they  are  in  business  for  themselves.  The 
best  result  of  cost  accounting  by  school  students  is  to  teach  them 
to  form  life  habits  of  cost  accounting.  They  should  learn  that  the 
right  methods  are  easy  and  worth  while.  The  present  lack  of  cost 


Fia.  137. 


Fia.  138. 


PIG.  137. — The  vocational  instructor  on  his  round  of  visits  to  the  home  projects  should  take 

notes  from  students'  records  and  from  the  work  for  use  in  class  work  and  to  report  to  the 

local  press.     (S.  R.  S.,  U.  S.  D.  A.) 

Fio.  138. — Vocational  instructor's  car  at  home  of  student  who  has  just  selected  his  white 
seed  corn.  The  car  belongs  to  the  county  and  is  lettered  "  Cape  May  County  Vocational 
School  of  Agriculture."  This  instructor  takes  books  and  other  equipment  with  him. 

(A.  W.  Hand.) 

accounting  on  American  farms  should  be  overcome  by  right  teach- 
ing of  simple  methods. 

Records  of  Income.- — In  many  projects  in  gardening,  dairying, 
small  fruits,  orcharding,  etc.,  special  forms  should  be  made  for 
keeping  records  of  sales  of  products.  These  should  provide  for  the 
amount  and  kind  of  articles  sold,  prices  per  unit  received,  and 
places  for  totals  per  week  or  month.  Records  of  incomes  from  proj- 
ects can  thus  be  simplified  and  summaries  can  be  easily  made  out 
any  time  desired  for  the  student,  parent  or  instructor. 

Calculating  Labor  Income. — To  determine  the  "labor  income" 
for  a  season  or  at  the  close  of  a  project,  the  student  should  find 
the  total  income  from  all  sales  and  from  this  deduct  all  the  items 


ATTITUDE  OF  THE  INSTRUCTOR 


281 


of  expense  except  his  own  labor.    To  find  the  "  net  income,"  deduct 
from  this  a  fair  amount  for  his  own  labor. 

Visits  to  Projects. — In  teaching  vocational  agriculture,  the  in- 
structor should  visit  the  farms  where  students  are  pursuing  proj- 
ects (Figs.  137,  138,  and  153).  These  visits  should  be  made  with 
sufficient  frequency  to  insure  the  right  conduct  of  the  project. 
No  wrong  steps  should  be  taken  by  the  students  because  of  the 
neglect  of  the  instructor  to  visit  the  project  work  at  the  proper 


FIG.   139. — Growing  corn  for  profit  has  been  the  most  popular  home  project  of  students. 

Thousands  have  chosen  this  project.     More  variety  will  help  the  school,  the  students,  and 

the  farmers.     The  Minnesota  boy  at  the  left  is  running  a  special  seed  corn  project,  and  has 

de-tasseled  some  of  the  rows.     (Right  from  T.  G.  Brown,  Wis.) 

time.  The  frequency  of  visits  will  depend  largely  upon  the  season 
of  the  year.  This  is  particularly  true  in  the  crop  growing  projects. 
In  animal  husbandry  projects  the  visits  may  be  more  evenly 
distributed  through  the  season. 

Attitude  of  the  Instructor  When  Visiting  Projects. — The  spirit 
of  helpfulness,  encouragement,  and  stimulation  should  be  upper- 
most in  the  mind  of  the  agricultural  instructor  when  he  is  visiting 
the  project  work  of  his  students.  He  should  maintain  this  attitude 
toward  the  student  himself,  toward  the  parents,  and  toward  neigh- 
bors whom  he  may  meet  on  his  rounds.  He  should  always  feel 
that  he  is  there  for  the  good  that  he  can  do  and  for  the  help  that 


282  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  HOME  PROJECTS 

he  can  give.  He  should  impress  corrections  kindly.  This  may 
often  be  done  by  contrasting  with  other  neighbors  or  other  students 
that  are  doing  better  with  similar  projects.  He  should  avoid 
participation  in  neighborhood  controversies.  He  should  avoid 
discussions  of  superstitious  beliefs  which  are  in  the  minds  of  neigh- 
bors or  parents.  In  place  of  this,  he  can  firmly  insist  upon  scien- 
tific methods  being  followed  without  trying  to  controvert  wrong 
beliefs.  Better  results  will  thus  be  obtained. 

The  agricultural  instructor  on  his  rounds  may  do  much  good 
in  every  community.  Many  questions  will  be  brought  to  him  if 
he  is  a  suitable  person  for  his  work.  He  should  not  restrict  his 


Fia.   140. — A  dairy  project  with  four  pure-bred  Jerseys  keeps  a  high  school  boy  very  busy. 

(A.  A.  Sather,  Mo.) 

work  to  particular  projects  of  his  own  students.  He  should  be 
willing  to  help  along  all  the  agricultural  projects  of  the  neighbor- 
hood, so  far  as  his  time  and  energy  and  store  of  knowledge  will 
permit.  In  Chapter  XVIII  are  given  suggestions  for  conducting 
community  work. 

Instructor's  Relation  to  Notebook  and  Record  Keeping.— 
When  visiting  a  student's  project  the  special  records  kept  for  that 
project  should  all  be  inspected  by  the  instructor.  If  mistakes  are 
being  made,  they  should  be  clearly  indicated  and  carefully  noted 
for  improvement  in  the  future.  If  possible,  suggestions  should  be 
offered  to  simplify  the  records  and  make  them  easier  to  keep.  Ac- 
curacy and  punctuality  in  keeping  records  of  cost  and  income  should 
be  emphasized  whenever  students  are  lax  in  such  matters. 

The  project  notebooks  of  students  should  be  examined  some- 
what regularly  so  that  students  will  be  induced  to  keep  their  books 
in  condition  for  inspection.  Postponement  of  notebook  work 
should  be  discouraged. 


PROJECT  SCORE  CARDS 


283 


Written  and  Oral  Instructions. — When  each  visit  is  made  to 
inspect  project  work,  oral  instructions  should  be  given  the  student 
after  all  points  of  the  work  have  been  gone  over  and  discussed. 
Finally  a  brief  written  record  of  the  main  points  should  be  left 
with  the  student,  a  copy  of  which  is  kept  on  a  carbon  sheet  by  the 
instructor  for  future  reference.  This  written  record  should  in- 
clude (1)  the  mistakes  in  methods  which  the  student  has  been 
making  and  which  he  is  instructed  to  change;  (2)  the  steps  which 
he  is  directed  to  perform  next;  (3)  suggestions  regarding  produc- 
tion, marketing,  or  other  processes  yet  to  be  performed. 

This  written  record  of  instructions  will  be  signed  by  the  instruc- 
tor and  will  bear  the  date  of  the 
visit.  This  becomes  the  record 
of  the  visits  made  by  the  instruc- 
tor and  will  enter  into  the  stu- 
dent's project  report. 

Project  Score  Cards.— In  each 
type  of  project  or  for  each  gen- 
eral subject  in  agriculture  a 
project  score  card  should  be  for- 
mulated by  the  instructor  to  suit 
the  local  conditions.  Classify  the 
projects  being  pursued  by  the 
students.  Announce  that  all  the 
students  will  be  scored  on  the 
progress  of  their  work.  In  all  of 
these  score  cards  the  instructor 
may  allow  25  per  cent  for  points 
in  production,  25  per  cent  for 
record  keeping,  25  per  cent  for 
marketing  and  profits  (labor  income  and  net  income), and  25 per  cent 
for  summaries  or  history  or  stories  of  the  project  work.  The  latter 
should  include  reasoning  and  application  of  fundamental  principles. 
It  is  on  the  first  twenty-five  points  that  the  score  cards  for  different 
kinds  of  projects  will  vary.  This  part  of  the  score  card  may  be 
separated  into  many  subdivisions.  Include  such  points  as  mastery 
of  new  methods,  use  of  related  knowledge,  interest  in  work,  interest 
in  science,  cooperation,  economical  use  of  time,  exercise  of  judg- 
ment, systematic  performance  of  duties,  punctuality,  facility  in 
performance,  and  skills  developed. 

Encourage  the  spirit  of  competition  among  students.     They 


Fio.   141. — Students  with  Holsteins  in  their 
dairy  projects,  Vanecboro,  X.  C.     They  wear 
white  suits   and   Imlieve   in   producing   clean 
milk.     (II.  L.  Joslyn.) 


284 


HOW  TO  CONDUCT  HOME  PROJECTS 


should  feel  that  the  approbation  of  the  teacher  is  worth  while. 
The  score  cards  will  enable  the  instructor  to  compare  more  accu- 
rately the  work  of  all  members  of  his  class.  The  final  results  of 
students,  even  if  pursuing  different  kinds  of  projects,  may  be  com- 
pared if  the  work  is  scored  on  the  basis  here  given  or  any  similar  plan. 
In  using  the  score  card  the  work  should  be  divided  into  two 
factors:  (1)  Those  over  which  the  student  has  little  control,  as 
weather  conditions  and  unforeseen  accidents;  (2)  those  for  which 
the  student  could  be  held  directly  responsible.  Thus  the  efforts 

FIG.   143. 


Fio.  142. 


Flo.    142. — A  pure-bred  Holstein  calf  worth  $200  when  born  is  only  a  part  of  a  good  dairy 

project.     (T.  G.  Brown,  Wis.) 

Fid.   143. — A  junior  project  for  a  club  boy  may  be  with  only  one  pure-bred  Guernsey  calf. 

(T.  G.  Brown.) 

of  individual  students  may  be  judged  and  properly  credited.  The 
instructor  will  need  to  jog  constantly  his  own  memory  with  refer- 
ence to  points  to  be  considered  when  criticizing  or  commenting 
upon  the  projects  and  in  scoring  them.  Otherwise  he  may  over- 
look points  that  would  escape  his  notice. 

How  to  Visit  the  Work  of  Students. — The  instructor  must  have 
some  means  of  conveyance.  In  some  cases  instructors  use  bicycles,  in 
others  motorcycles.  Some  instructors  go  on  horseback,  some  use 
automobiles  (Figs.  137,  138,  and  153).  The  condition  of  roads  in  dif- 
ferent sections  of  the  country  and  at  different  times  of  the  year  is  an 
important  factor  in  determining  the  means  of  transportation.  The 
cost  of  traveling  also  enters  largely  into  the  problem.  In  a  very  few 


TAKING  STUDENTS  TO  SEE  THE  WORK  OF  OTHERS  285 

cases,  interurbans,  trolleys,  and  railroads  are  found  convenient  enough 
for  extensive  use  in  this  work.  Walking  from  various  centers  of 
transportation  is  sometimes  re-sorted  to  by  teachers  of  agriculture. 

IK,.    144. 


FIG.   145. 


Fio.    146. 


Fio.   144. — When  a  student  keeps  pure-bred  pigs,  builds  a  hog  cot,  produces  a  pasture,  and 

otherwise  manages  a  sow  and  litter,  he  has  a  good  educational  project      (Guy  S.  Ellis.) 
Fid.    145. — A  Wisconsin  pig-club  boy  with  pure-bred  pics  that  hold  his  attention.     (T.  G. 

Brown.) 

FIG.   146 — Teach  students  that  the  greatest  profit   in  pig   projects  is  obtained  when  pigs 
are  raised  on  clover  or  other  good  pasture.     (W.  C.  Christensen,  VVis.) 

Taking  Students  to  See  the  Work  of  Others. — Much  benefit 
may  be  gained  by  students  in  the  same  kind  of  work  visiting  the 


286 


HOW  TO  CONDUCT  HOME  PROJECTS 


enterprises  of  others.  They  learn  by  example  what  good  points 
to  follow  and  what  mistakes  to  avoid.  Let  every  student  visit 
every  successful  project  in  the  vicinity.  Farm  operations  and 
projects  of  graduates  and  former  students  may  be  included.  Let 


Fio.    147.  —  Plant  propagation  has  boon  chosen  by  this  boy  as  a  life  work  as  a  result  of  a 
project  which  began  with  a  propagating  frame  .'<  by  (i  feet  in  size,  Ontario,  Calif.      (Chas. 

J.  Booth.) 

them  carry  score  cards  or  outlines  which  will  call  their  attention 
to  each  particular  point  in  the  work. 

Some  of  the  students  may  have  conveyances  to  assist  in  taking 
the  students  around.  If  the  roads  allow  the  use  of  automobiles, 
the  problem  of  visiting  projects  is  an  easy  one. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  PROJECTS  WITH  FIELD  CROPS      287 

Suggestions  for  Projects  with  Field  Crops.—- ( Irow  for  profit 
any  farm  crop  of  the  region.  Annual  crops  for  such  projects  may 
bo  corn  (Fig.  139),  wheat,  Irish  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  oats, 


Fio.    1-tS. — Project  si  n  the  renovation  of  old  apple  orchards  may  he  very  profitable  to  students 
and  the  orchard  owners.     (A.   \V.  Hand,   N.  ,).) 

barley,  sorghum,  ami  sugar-beets.  Perennial  crops  may  be  grown 
either  their  first  year  or  may  be  taken  over  by  the  student  after 
they  are  established.  Such  crops  may  include  alfalfa,  clovers, 
timothy,  orchard  grass,  etc. 


288 


HOW  TO  CONDUCT  HOME  PROJECTS 

Fio.  149. 


ins.    149-151.  —  Project  work  in   bee-keeping,  Florence  High  School,  Arizona.      Fig.    149.— 
uilding  hives.     Fig.  150.  —  Landing  of  heavy  laden  bees.     Fig.  151.—  Student  with  bee  veil 
He  cleared  $3000  in  one  season  on  his  project.     (V.  B.  Anderson.) 


Fins. 
B 

doing  his  work. 


PROJECTS  IN  SOIL  IMPROVEMENT 


289 


Grow  for  profit  combinations  of  crops,  as  the  following  companion 
crops:  Oats  and  rape,  cowpeas  and  millet,  oats  and  vetch,  cowpeas 
and  sorghum,  grass  mixtures,  corn  and  cowpeas,  corn  and  peanuts, 
corn  and  velvet  beans,  corn  and  soybeans.  The  following  groups 
of  succession  crops  may  be  used: 

Wheat  followed  by  clover,  potatoes  followed  by  winter  wheat, 
°arly  potatoes  followed  by  buckwheat,  oats  followed  by  buck- 
wheat, crimson  clover  followed  by  potatoes,  crimson  clover  fol- 
lowed by  corn. 

Any  of  the  projects  with  crops  may  be  accompanied  by  special 


Fio.   152. 


Fio.   153. 


FIG.   152. — Encourage   bee-keeping  in  home   project   work.     This  is  an   ideal   site  for  the 

apiary.     (C.  J.  Booth.) 

Fiq.  153. — Automobile  expense  is  one  of  the  troubles  of  the  teacher  of  vocational  agriculture 
while  visiting  home  project  work  where  the  roads  are  poor  and  bridges  are  lacking.  (H.  A. 

Savage,  Ala.) 

treatments  for  demonstrations  of  particular  features,  as  liming, 
fertilizing,  or  comparing  varieties  (Fig.  139). 

Projects  in  Soil  Improvement. — Rundown  farms,  abandoned 
fields,  or  gullied  fields  may  serve  as  subjects  for  projects  in  soil 
improvement.  In  such  cases  it  is  fair  to  assume  that  the  project 
may  be  a  profitable  one.  But  in  order  to  closely  approximate  the 
profit  from  the  improvement  it  is  advisable  to  have  a  committee 
appointed  at  the  beginning  of  the  work  to  assess  the  value  of  the 
land.  Let  the  same  committee  make  a  subsequent  assessment 
after  the  project  has  been  completed. 

Steps  in  such  projects  will  have  to  be  planned  to  suit  individual 
cases.  They  may  consist  of  any  of  the  following  operations:  Clear- 
ing of  brush,  removing  of  stumps,  piling  up  or  hauling  off  stones, 
stopping  gulleys,  terracing,  growing  cover  crops,  using  green  mau- 
19 


290  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  HOME  PROJECTS 

ure,  spreading  manure  and  fertilizers,  liming,  good  tillage,  and 
establishing  improvement  crops,  as  legumes. 

Projects  with  Dairy  Cattle. — The  following  suggestions  indicate 
the  scope  of  a  number  of  profitable  projects  in  dairying: 

1.  Care  for,  feed,  and  manage  four  or  more  dairy  cows  for  twelve  months 
(Figs.  140  and  141). 

2.  Improve  a  dairy  herd  by  culling  out  the  poor  cows  after  keeping  records, 
tests,  and  figuring  the  feed  bills  for  individual  cows  of  the  herd  for  a  period  of 
twelve  or  more  months. 

3.  A  dairy  feeding  project  may  consist  of  working  out  good  rations  for 
dairy  cows  and  using  them  for  twelve  months  or  more  with  the  members  of  a 
large  herd.    The  amount  of  feed  weighed  to  each  cow  daily  should  be  compared 
with  the  records  of  milk  produced.    Compute  the  saving  due  to  adapting  the 
amount  and  kind  of  feed  to  the  individual  animal. 

4.  In  a  very  large  herd,  let  the  student  do  the  buying  of  feeds  and  keeping 
the  records  for  the  entire  herd. 

5.  Operate  the  separator,  make  butter,  and  take  charge  of  marketing  all 
products  for  a  period  of  twelve  months.    The  price  of  the  raw  product  may  be 
fixed  and  the  profit  may  come  from  the  manufacturing  and  marketing. 

6.  Let  one  or  more  students  of  the  class  run  a  small  cow-testing  association 
for  a  year.    The  profit  to  the  student  would  come  from  the  money  paid  by  the 
members  of  the  association  for  this  work. 

7.  Feed  and  take  care  of  the  calves  of  a  dairy  herd  for  one  year  (Figs.  142 
and  143). 

8.  A  minor  project  may  consist  of  preparing  dairy  cows  and  calves  for 
exhibit,  showing  them  at  a  fair  for  premiums. 

Projects  with  Hogs. — A  number  of  profitable  projects  in  con- 
nection with  the  swine  industry  are  suggested  here: 

1.  Fatten  meat  hogs  for  home  use,  dress  and  cure  the  meat. 

2.  Raise  and  market  one  or  more  litters  of  pigs  and  sell  them  for  market 
or  for  breeding  (Figs.  144  and  145). 

3.  Raise  three  or  more  pure-bred  sows  and  sell  their  first  litters  after  regis- 
tering them  (Fig.  146). 

4.  Keep  all  hogs  on  a  swine  farm  free  from  internal  and  external  parasites 
for  six  months.     Make  a  dipping  vat  and  sanitary  wallow.    This  project  may 
be  made  to  include  all  diseases,  as  treating  for  hog  cholera. 

5.  Make  all  troughs,  feeders,  platforms,  pens,  loading  shoots,  and  other 
structures  needed  on  the  hog  farm  (compensation  on  mechanic's  basis). 

6.  Grow  a  series  of   hog  pastures   to  maintain  good   pasturage   for   a 
period  of  six  months  and  graze  a  lot  of  hogs   on  these.    This  project  may 
be  extended  over  a  period  of  twelve  months  and  include  winter  pastures 
where  possible. 

7.  Finish  a   bunch  of  ten  or  more  hogs  for  the   last  ninety  days  and 
sell  them. 

8.  A  good  project  may  consist  of  killing,  curing,  and  marketing  meat  from 
a  farm  where  swine  is  one  of  the  chief  products. 

9.  Prepare  a  bunch  of  pure-bred  swine  for  exhibition  at  a  large  fair  and 
exhibit  them  for  premiums. 

10.  Kill  and  manufacture  pork  from  a  farm  for  one  year,  making  the  three 
products,  lard,   scrapple,  and   sausage;  put   up  in   fancy  packages  for  city 
market.    Use  a  trade  name  in  this  project. 


PROJECTS  WITH  HOUSES  291 

Projects  with  Beef  Cattle. — Profitable  projects  in  study  arid 
management  of  t>eef  cattle  may  be  conducted  by  students  pursuing 
animal  husbandry. 

1.  Buy  ii  hunch  of  steers,  e.g.,  one  carload,  ago  about  eighteen  months 
each,  feed  these  over  winter  and  fatten  them  for  the  spring  market.    Or  use 
a  small  number  and  finally  butcher  them  and  sell  the  meat  (Kig.  134). 

2.  Raise  a  bunch  of  beef  calves,  beginning  at  weaning  age,  until  they  are 
ready  for  baby  beef  at  fourteen  to  eighteen  months  of  age. 

3.  Select  and  buy  three  or  more  shorthorn  cows  with  calves    at    side. 
Register  the  calves,  prepare  the  bunch  for  sale,  and  sell  them  at  the  end  of 
a  year. 

4.  Prepare  a  bunch  of  pure-bred  cattle,  Angus,  Hereford,  or  Galloway, 
for  exhibition  at  an  important  fair  and  show  them  for  premiums.     Animals 
of  several  different  ages  should  be  included  in  this  project. 

Projects  hi  Sheep  Raising. — In  regions  where  sheep  production 
is  for  meat,  students  may  plan  valuable  projects  in  this  line  of 
animal  husbandry. 

1.  Care  for  and  manage  fifty  sheep  for  one  year. 

2.  A  minor  project  may  consist  of  marketing  wool,  moat,  and  selling  some 
breeding  animals  for  a  period  of  twelve  months  from  the  home  flock. 

3.  Keep  records  and  pedigrees  ;md  attend  to  registering  the  animals  in  a 
large  flock  of  pure-bred  sheep.     This  project  may  also  include  the  selling  of 
animals  for  breeding  purposes. 

4.  Prepare  a  large  bunch  of  sheep  of  different  ages  for  exhibition  at  a  fair 
and  show  them  for  premiums. 

5.  The  erection  of  a  modern  sheep  shed  with  good  floor  drainage,  the 
making  of  feeding  troughs  and  hay  racks  may  be  included  as  a  part  of  one  or 
another  of  sheep  projects. 

6.  Keep  sheep  of  a  large  sheep  farm  free  from  disease  for  a  year.     This 
may  include  making  and  using  a  dipping  vat,  the  planning  and  growing  of  a 
series  of  pastures  to  be  used  in  rotation  to  prevent  stomach  worms. 

7.  Buy  lambs  in  the  fall,  fatten  them  during  the  winter,  then  shear  and 
market  the  wool,  pasture  and  feed  the  flock  for  sale  in  the  fall. 

8.  Plan  a  project  in  the  production  of  hot-house  lambs.    This  may  follow 
the  preceding  project  by  breeding  some  of  the  ewes  mentioned  in  No.  7. 

9.  A  student  may  undertake  to  serve  the  community  as  a  sheep  expert 
in  selecting  breeders,  protecting  flocks  from  disease,  dipping,  buying  concen- 
trates, planning  pastures,  shearing,  and  serving  as  market  agent  for  products. 

Projects  with  Horses. — The  natural  interest  which  students 
often  have  growing  colts,  managing  horses  and  mules,  makes  them 
often  wish  to  pursue  a  project  in  one  of  these  lines. 

1.  On  a  large  farm  employing  many  work  animals  a  student  may  be 
employed  as  an  expert  in  feeding,  watering,  bedding,  and  pasturing  all  horses 
or  other  working  animals  on  the  place.     This  may  be  for  a  period  of  a  year. 
The  profit  in  the  project  may  come  from  the  pay  he  receives. 

2.  The  foregoing  project  may  have  added  to  it  the  care  of  the  harness, 
including  repair,  upkeep,  fitting  to  animals,  etc. 

3.  Raise  and  break  one  or  more  pairs  of  colts  for  two  years.    These  ought 
to  be  of  different  ages. 


292  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  HOME  PROJECTS 

4.  Care  for  and  manage  three  or  more  pure-bred  brood  mares,  preferably 
of  the  draft  type.    Include  the  breeding  of  the  animals,  raising  of  colts,  trim- 
ming of  hoofs,  care  of  both  dams  and  foals. 

5.  A  student  may  undertake  to  serve  as  expert  for  his  community  in  car- 
ing for  the  work  horses  and  mules,  preventing  diseases,  treatment  of  common 
ailments,  clipping,  etc. 

6.  Prepare  a  number  of  pure-bred  animals  for  exhibition  at  a  state  fair 
or  other  important  fair.     These  should,  if  possible,  include  such  animals  as 
mentioned  in  No.  4  above.    Exhibit  the  animals  for  premiums.    This  should 
include  the  registering  of  the  foals  before  fair  time. 

Poultry  Projects. — Less  capital  is  required  in  starting  projects 
in  poultry  than  in  most  other  lines  of  animal  industry.  Farms 
are  often  found  more  or  less  equipped  at  the  beginning  with  some 
features  of  a  poultry  plant.  These  projects  may  also  be  pursued 
in  villages  or  in  suburbs  of  cities.  The  projects  may  be  conducted 
by  both  young  men  and  young  women.  There  are  many  types 
of  poultry  projects,  a  few  of  which  are  suggested  here. 

1.  Take  charge  of  and  operate  the  farm  poultry  plant  for  one  year. 

2.  Select  and  purchase  laying  stock  for  a  good  flock.    Use  the  trap-nesting 
system  and  keep  records  of  results  for  one  year. 

3.  Begin  with  incubators,  hatch  and  grow  for  one  year  a  flock  of  pure-bred 
chicks.      This  should  include  proper  management  of  young  stock,   dispo- 
sal of  males  for  broilers,   selection  of  females   for  laying,    installing  them 
in  laying  quarters  for  the  winter,  and  the  winter  production  of  eggs  from 
these  pullets. 

4.  On  a  large  specialized  poultry  plant  undertake  to  operate  a  number  of 
incubators  and  brooders  and  keep  them  in  repair;  repair  and  maintain  the 
houses,  feeders,  trap  nests,  doors,  gates,  and  fences  for  one  year.    (Compensa- 
tion for  repair  work  at  mechanic  s  rates.) 

5.  A  project  in  sanitation  may  be  pursued  on  a  very  large  poultry  plant 
by  keeping  the  flocks  of  poultry  free  from  all  vermin  and  disease  for  one  year. 
Disinfecting  houses,  soil,  rotating  yards;  trapping  or  shooting  enemies,  etc., 
may  be  included. 

6.  For  a  large  plant  work  out  scratching  rations,  dry-mash  rations,  pur- 
chase the  ingredients  and  prepare  these  rations  for  one  year.     Collect  and 
market  the  eggs,  and  market  other  products  and  keep  the  records  during 
this  year. 

7.  Hatch,  grow,  and  fatten  for  market  a  flock  of  broilers.     This  may 
include  fifty  or  more.    It  should  include  dressing,  conditioning,  and  marketing, 
with  records  and  with  reports. 

8.  Hatch,  grow,  and  fatten  for  market  not  less  than  fifty  turkeys.    This 
may  include  dressing  and  marketing. 

9.  Plan  a  similar  project  with  geese  or  with  ducks. 

10.  Hatch  with  incubators  and  sell  baby  chicks  through  one  season. 

11.  A  similar  project  may  be  planned  in  custom  hatching  for  other  people 
during  a  season. 

12.  Plan  a  project  with  pure-bred  poultry,  beginning  with  the  laying  flock. 
This  may  include  the  advertising  and  sale  of  eggs  for  hatching  of  day-old 
chicks,  of  cockerels,  the  selection  of  pullets  for  the  next  year's  flock,  ana  dis- 
posal of  culls. 

13.  Prepare  pens,  trios,  pairs  and  single  birds  of  one  or  more  pure  breeds 
for  exhibition  at  shows.    Exhibit  them  for  premiums. 


PROJECTS  WITH  SMALL  FRUITS  29.3 

Projects  in  Vegetable  Gardening. — It  is  easy  to  suggest  many 
projects  in  the  growing  of  vegetable  crops  for  profit.  It  is  almost 
needless  to  mention  them  here.  A  few  suggestions,  however,  will 
bring  to  mind  many  others  with  other  garden  crops. 

1.  Raise  one  to  five  acres  of  Irish  potatoes;  include  the  combating  of 
enemies,  harvesting  and  marketing  the  crop.    This  may,  if  desired,  include  the 
feature  of  storing  a  part  or  all  of  the  crop  for  sale  in  the  winter. 

2.  A  very  profitable  project  may  be  to  grow  an  acre  of  onions  from  seed 
and  market  the  product.     A  similar  project  would  be  to  grow  a  half  acre  of 
onion  sets  from  seed.     Near  a  large  city  where  green  bunch  onions  are  readily 
sold  these  may  be  grown  from  sets  and  marketed  in  early  spring. 

3.  Raise  for  sale  hotbed  plants,  including  cabbage,  cauliflower,  head  lettuce, 
peppers,  eggplant,  tomatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  kohl-rabi,  etc.     The  marketing 
of  these  at  retail  or  at  wholesale  stores  should  prove  to  be  a  profitable  project 
(Fig.  147). 

4.  In  regions  where  there  are  canneries,  projects  in  the  growing  of  products 
used  by  the  cannery  should  be  undertaken.     These;  may  include  growing  of 
specified  areas  of  peas,  snap  beans,  lima  beans,  cabbage,  tomatoes,  sweet 
corn,  cucumbers,  etc. 

5.  The  growing  of  special  crops  of  one  or  two  kinds  for  nearby  markets 
may  include  any  of  the  usual  market  garden  crops,  as  watermelons,  cantaloupes, 
rhubarb,  asparagus,  sweet  corn. 

6.  Grow  two  acres  of  pop-corn  and  sell  the  same  in  ripe  condition  during 
the  winter. 

7.  Grow  a  good  home  garden  of  all  the  best  kinds  of  vegetables  for  this 
purpose.    The  records  of  amounts  used  at  home  as  well  as  those  sold  may  be 
kept  and  charged  at  market  prices. 

8.  Plan  projects  in  succession  cropping  of  garden  vegetables.    Let  short- 
season  crops  of  the  early  vegetables  be  followed  by  hot  weather  crops.     Ex- 
amples of  the  first  group  are  radish,  lettuce,  early  peas,  early  carrots,  English 
peas.    Examples  of  the  hot  weather  crops  that  may  follow  the  others  are  sweet 
corn,  pop-corn,  beans,  okra,  tomatoes,  peppers,  melons.     If  desired,  late  crops 
that  will  grow  after  frosts  may  be  used  in  the  fall  garden,  particularly  in 
central  and  southern  states.    The  third  group  might  include  turnips,  collards, 
radish,  lettuce,  cabbage,  cauliflower. 

Projects  with  Small  Fruits. — The  conducting  of  projects  in 
small  fruits  may  best  be  made  to  cover  more  than  one  year.  If 
the  crops  be  taken  at  a  more  advanced  stage,  a  single  year  may  be 
devoted  to  the  project  and  this  may  be  the  year  in  which  the  sale 
of  a  crop  is  included.  Several  suggestions  for  the  scope  of  small 
fruit  projects  are  here  given: 

1.  Begin  with  a  newly  set  patch  of  raspberries  and  grow  them  for  two  years, 
including  the  marketing  of  the  crop  the  second  year. 

2.  Take  a  raspberry  patch  that  is  already  of  bearing  age  and  manage  the 
business  entirely  for  one  year,  including  the  care,  winter  pruning,  combating 
enemies,  harvesting,  marketing,  and  accounting. 

3.  Projects  similar  to  either  of  the  above  may  be  planned  with  an  acre 
or  half  acre  of  blackberries  or  strawberries. 

4.  Take  a  vineyard  of  bearing  age  and  conduct  the  business  for  one  year. 
Let  the  work  include  the  growing  of  a  cover  crop,  winter  pruning,  combating 


294  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  HOME  PROJECTS 

enemies,   repairing  trellises,  tying  up  growing   canes,  harvesting  the  crop, 
marketing,  and  reporting  accounts. 

5.  One  of  the  best  plans  for  projects  with  small  fruits  is  to  have  students 
conduct  at  least  two  projects  with  the  same  kind  of  crop.  Let  one  of  these 
begin  with  the  bearing  crop;  let  the  other  begin  with  the  starting  of  a  new 
plantation ;  thus  all  phases  of  the  work  may  be  included  in  one  year  of  practice. 

Projects  in  Orcharding. — The  time  to  begin  with  a  home  proj- 
ect in  orcharding  is  most  naturally  at  the  starting  of  the  orchard. 
As  this  would  require  so  much  time  to  secure  a  profit  to  the  student, 
it  is  difficult  to  interest  the  student  in  projects  beginning  at  that 
time.  Several  suggested  plans  are  here  presented : 

1.  Start  with  two  small  projects  in  orcharding.    Let  one  begin  with  plant- 
ing a  young  orchard  and  let  it  continue  for  one  or  more  years.     The  other 
project  paralleling  this  should  begin  with  a  bearing  orchard.    Both  will  include 
all  details  of  orcharding,  but  the  second  will  be  the  one  from  which  a  profit 
should  be  expected.    An  orchard  project  of  this  type  may  be  in  peach  growing, 
apple  growing,  pear  growing,  plum  growing,  or  may  be  a  combination  of  any 
of  these. 

2.  Begin  with  an  old  apple  orchard  on  the  home  place.    Renovate  it,  reju- 
venate the  trees,  and  market  the  fruit.     This  project  may  be  conducted  for 
one  year  only,  provided  the  trees  are  not  too  badly  neglected  to  produce  a  crop 
the  first  year.    Otherwise  the  project  may  be  conducted  for  two  or  more  years 
so  that  real  results  may  be  attained  (Fig.  148). 

3.  A  minor  project  may  be  conducted  in  a  large  peach  orchard  of  harvest- 
ing, sorting,  packing,  and  marketing  the  peach  crop  for  one  season. 

4.  A  similar  project  for  one  season  may  be  planned  for  an  apple  orchard, 
including  the  same  features.     It  may  also  include  a  project  in  storing  for 
winter  sale. 

5.  On  places  where  there  is  no  bearing  orchard  a  profitable  project  may 
be  planned  in  the  starting  of  a  young  orchard  of  one  or  more  kinds  of  fruit. 
The  value  of  the  orchard  should  be  assessed  by  a  committee  at  the  end  of  the 
project.    This  project  should  really  be  conducted  for  two  years  if  possible. 

Bee-Keeping  Projects. — Spring  is  a  good  season  for  active 
operations  with  colonies  of  bees.  If  a  student  selects  either  a  large 
or  a  small  project  in  bee-keeping,  he  may  find  much  study  and 
work  for  the  winter  season.  He  will  find  his  time  more  fully  occu- 
pied in  the  honey-making  season  (Figs.  149,  150,  151,  and  152). 

Nursery  Projects. — Very  profitable  undertakings  may  be  made 
in  the  growing  of  nursery  stock.  Remember  to  observe  state 
inspection  rules.  Several  projects  are  suggested  here: 

1.  In  the  winter  make  several  thousand  root  grafts  from  scions  and  roots 
which  have  been  stored  for  the  purpose.    Grow  these  in  nursery  rows  in  the 
garden  the  following  season  and  sell  the  young  trees  in  the  fall. 

2.  Grow  seedling  stocks  of  peaches,  plums,  cherries,  or  apples.    Bud  these 
in  the  open  in  September.     Grow  the  improved  varieties  for  one  season  and 
sell  the  young  trees  in  the  fall  of  that  year. 

3.  Make  root  cuttings  of  blackberries  and  grow  the  plants  for  one  season 
and  sell  them  in  the  fall  or  spring. 


PROJECTS  IN  FARM   MANAGEMENT  205 

4.  Tip  layer  black  raspberry  bushes  after  the  harvest  season  and  grow 
the  young  plants  the  balance  of  that  season  and  sell  tin-  Hinall  plants  in  the 
fall  or  spring. 

5.  Propagate  strawberry  plants  by  runners,  select  the  best  plants,  dig, 
properly  label,  and  soil  to  neighbors. 

6.  Make  root  divisions  of  red  raspberries  and  sell  the  plants. 

7.  Make   cuttings  of  currants,   gooseberries,   and  of  many   ornamental 
shrubs,  grow  these  in  garden  rows  for  one  or  two  years  and  sell  the  plants. 

Projects  in  Landscape  Gardening. — How  to  make  projects  of 
this  kind  profitable  is  suggested  in  some  of  the  following: 

1.  If  home  premises  are  rather  barren  of  shrubbery,  vines,  flowers,  and 
lawns,  have  an  assessment  committee  inspect  the  place  Ix'fore  the  beginning 
of  the  project,  and  at  the  end  of  it  this  committee  should  be  able  to  determine 
the  increased  value  of  the  premises  as  result  of  the  landscape  project.    Let  the 
first  project  consist  of  replanning  the  roads  and  walks,  starting  the  vines,  and 
seeding  lawns. 

2.  A  similar  project  may  include  much  of  the  above  and  in  addition  plant 
a  number  of  shrubs  in  masses  about  the  main  residence,  at  the  angles  of  walks 
or  roads,  or  in  clumps  to  hide  unsightly  buildings. 

3.  Another  feature  of  either  of  the  above  projects  may  be  the  painting 
of  the  residence,  whitewashing  of  barns  or  other  buildings. 

4.  Still  another  feature  of  any  of  these  landscape  projects  may  be  the  repair- 
ing or  building  of  fences,  the  planting  of  trees,  or  the  erection  of  t  rellises  for  vines. 

Projects  in  Farm  Management. — The  profitable  side  of  a  num- 
ber of  projects  in  farm  management  may  be  seen  in  some  of  the 
following  suggestions : 

1.  Keep  books  and  records  of  costs  and  income  from  any  one  crop  on  your 
father's  farm  for  one  year.     This  may  be  done  on  a  percentage  basis  or  may 
be  for  a  stipulated  amount  per  hour  of  time  used. 

2.  Let  this  bookkeeping  include  any  record  of   cost  accounting   for  the 
farm  and  sale  of  products.    Crops  fed  or  used  on  the  farm  should  also  be  re- 
corded.    A  complete  summary  at  the  end  of  the  year  should  be  made. 

3.  On  a  livestock  -farm  keep  records  on  special  forms  as  well  as  book 
accounts  of  cost,  sales,  and  profits  for  one  year.     The  records  of  breeding  of 
animals,  birth  of  animals,  production  of  individual  cows,  etc.,  may  be  included 
in  this  project.    A  record  of  the  cost  of  the  family  living  mav  be  made  for  one 
year.     Show  what  part  of  this  comes  from  the  farm  itself  and  what  part 
is  purchased. 

4.  A  variation  from  the  preceding  project  may  consist  of  comparing  the 
cost  of  living  with  and  without  a  home  garden. 

5.  If  the  father's  main  project  is  the  selling  of  pure-bred  livestock,  keep 
the  cost  accounts  and  sales  for  one  year. 

6.  Plan  and  direct  a  profitable  rotation  of  crops  for  three  or  four  years, 
using  as  many  fields  as  there  are  years  in  the  rotation.     Keep  a  full  record  of 
each  of  these  crops  as  to  cost  and  profit  and  compare  them.    This  project  may 
be  reasonably  well  completed  in  one  year,  but  may  continue  for  the  full  rota- 
tion.   Compare  the  rotation  system  with  the  old  one-crop  system. 

7.  Replan  a  farm  for  greatest  advantage  for  convenience  of  fields,  shape 
of  fields  for  plowing,  advantage  of  stock  water,  etc.    Change  fences  and  roads 
where  needed.    The  improvement  in  this  project  may  be  assessed  by  a  commit- 
tee visiting  the  place  before  and  after. 


296  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  HOME  PROJECTS 

8.  Rent  a  farm  to  a  tenant.    Supervise  the  operations  on  the  farm  and  keep 
books  concerning  these  operations  for  a  year. 

9.  In  the  community,  find  several  farms  which  are  rented  to  tenants  on 
different  plans  of  share  renting  or  cash  renting,  as,  with  or  without  residences, 
with  and  without  seed  and  fertilizer  furnished,  with  and  without  running 
cattle  on  stalks  and  stubble-fields,  after  crops  are  harvested.    Formulate  plans 
for  keeping  records  by  which  the  profit  to  owners  and  to  tenants  can  be  deter- 
mined in  each  of  these  plans.    Compare  these  plans  for  one  or  for  several  years. 

10.  On  a  large  farm  or  plantation,  hire  the  labor  for  the  place,  keep  time 
records,  and  pay  the  hands  by  the  week  or  by  the  month.  Plan  and  direct  the 
work  which  these  men  are  to  perform.    The  profit  from  this  project  may  come 
from  the  percentage  allowed  on  the  labor  of  the  men,  just  as  contractors  are 
sometimes  paid  in  other  walks  of  life. 

11.  Maintain  a  livestock  enterprise  on  a  farm  for  a  year,  buying  the  neces- 
sary feeds  or  other  supplies,  selling  products,  keeping  records,  keeping  up  pedi- 
grees and  registration  papers. 

12.  On  a  new  farm,  plan  the  proper  location  of  the  residence,  yard,  barn, 
well,  fields,  fences,  roads,  walks,  etc.    Work  on  the  location  of  these  and  manage 
their  construction  for  one  year  or  more.    In  this  project  a  time  allowance  may 
be  made  for  the  work  done.     The  same  percentage  basis  for  supervision  of 
construction  may  be  fixed. 

13.  Select  two  farms  with  premises  near  together,  as  across  the  road  from 
each  other.     Draw  plans  of  these  two  premises  showing  location  of  all  the 
important  features  of  each.    Keep  records  of  the  trips  on  both  for  a  year  in 
doing  chores.     Calculate  the  distance  travel  od  by  members  of  the  family  in 
drawing  and  carrying  water,  feeding  stock,  caring  for  machinery  and  tools. 
Then  replan  these  places  for  better  results  and  less  labor  in  performing  the 
chores.    Calculate  the  saving  for  one  year  and  let  this  be  the  amount  of  profit 
which  the  student  has  earned  during  this  project.    This  may  be  paid  by 
the  owners. 

14.  A  project  similar  to  the  above  may  be  planned  relating  to  the  labor 
of  plowing  and  cultivating  fields  of  different  shapes.    It  may  also  include  the 
study  of  distances  traveled  going  to  and  from  fields  of  the  farm  for  one  year. 
In  replanning,  change  the  location  and  shapes  of  fields  to  obtain  best  results. 

15.  Keep  records  of  cost  accounting  on  two  farms;  one  using  a  tractor  for 
field  work,  the  other  using  horses.    Compare  the  results  in  the  two  cases.    The 
economy  shown  should  be  the  profit  to  the  student  in  this  project. 

16.  Plan  the  distribution  of  labor  on  a  large  farm  for  an  entire  year.    Let 
the  profit  be  calculated  as  in  No.  10  above. 

17.  On  two  nearby  farms,  one  having  pure-bred  stock,  the  other  grades, 
compare  the  results  fora  year  by  accounting  the  cost  and  income.    The  profit 
in  this  project  may  be  derived  from  the  contrast  shown. 

18.  Projects  in  different  methods  of  marketing  farm  products  may  include 
contrasts  of  different  ways,  as  with  and  without  storage ;  wholesale  and  retail ; 
with  and  without  commission  agents;  with  and  without  sorting  or  special  pack- 
ing.   Selling  products  may  also  be  compared  with  feeding  them  on  the  farm. 

19.  Formulate   systems   of   advertising  of  special   farm   products;  com- 
pare the  different  systems,  such  as  newspaper  advertising,  bulletin  boards, 
and  circulars. 

20.  In  the  community,  compare  two  or  more  farms  for  the  purpose  of 
contrasting  diversified  fanning  and  specialized  farming.    Calculate  profits  of 
a  year's  undertaking  on  each  type  of  farm. 

21.  A  student  in  partnership  with  his  father  may  take  a  project  in  manag- 
ing the  entire  farm.    This  project  may  be  restricted  to  only  a  part  of  the  farm's 
enterprises:  the  livestock  side  or  the  crop  production  side.    The  management, 
however,  is  to  be  the  important  feature. 


RELATING  PROJECTS  TO  SCHOOL  STUDIES  297 

Projects  in  Farm  Mechanics  and  Engineering. — So  much  of  the 
work  in  farm  mechanics  is  supplementary  to  other  project  work 
that  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  plan  profitable  projects  strictly  in 
this  field.  In  the  following  paragraphs  a  few  kinds  of  mechanical 
projects  are  suggested : 

1.  Repair  and  take  care  of  the  machinery  of  the  entire  farm  for  one  year. 
Let  the  cost  of  all  repairs  and  work  1x3  charged  to  the  farm  at  prevalent  rates 
at  machine  shops. 

2.  Repair,  maintain,  and    personally    operate    a    farm    tractor   for   one 
year.     Do  all  the  tractor  work  on  the  home  place  and,  if  possible,  do  custom 
work  for  neighbors.     Let  charges  be  made  the  same  for  the  home  place  an 
for  neighl>ors. 

3.  Erect  a  dairy  barn  and  install  the  fixtures,  hiring  such  help  as  may 
be    necessary.      Charge    the    farm    for    this    work    at    prevalent    rates  for 
mechanical  work. 

4.  Install  a  water-pressure  system  for  the  farm  and  its  buildings.     Operate 
and  manage  this  for  a  jwriod  of  one  year.    Let  the  work  Ix?  charged  at  pijx;- 
fitter's  rates. 

5.  Install  a  lighting  system  for  the  farm  buildings,  including  electric  wiring, 
and  charge  the  farm  at  the  rate  of  electrician 's  rates. 

6.  Erect  a  permanent  poultry  house,  with  concrete  floors,  and  make  and 
install  all  appliances  for  a  complete  plant. 

7.  Erect  a  permanent  swine  house  with  concrete  feeding  floors.     Make 
and  install  all  appliances.     This  may  include  permanent  yards  and  making 
of  hurdle  fences. 

8.  Make  a  complete  system  of  concrete  walks  alxnit  the  premises.     This 
may  include  making  articles  of  concrete  needed  on  the  farm. 

9.  On  a  large  farm  where  there  are  many  work  animals  a  student  may 
undertake  to  keep  horses  shod  and  in  every  way  take  care  of  their  foet  for  a 
year,  charging  at  blacksmith's  rates. 

10.  A  student  may  be  the  farm  power  expert  for  a  year  repairing  and  main- 
taining tractors,  automobiles,  and  stationary  gas  engines  at  mechanic's  rates. 

11.  Improve  the  farm  mechanically  and  keep  records  of  the  work,  charging 
at  proper  rates  for  each  line  of  work.    This  may  include  repairing  of  farm  build- 
ings,  roofs,   gutters;   rebuilding   or   repairing   fences;   improving   or   perhaps 
relocating  and  building  roads  and  walks;  painting  and  whitewashing. 

12.  Let  a  capable  student  take  full  charge  of  the  construction  of  a  farm 
residence. 

13.  Manage  the  buying,  improving,  and  selling  of  a  farm  for  profit.    This 
may  be  called  a  project  in  management  as  well  as  mechanics. 

14.  Install  bathroom  fixtures  and  make  charge  at  plumber's  rates. 

15.  Install  a  septic  tank  and  connect  bathroom  and  kitchen  with  same. 
Make  charge  at  excavator's  rates. 

16.  Survey  and  take  levels,  then  install  a  land-drainage  system  by  means 
of  tiles  for  one  or  more  fields.    Charge  at  surveyor's  and  laborer's  rates. 

17.  Make  surveys  and  do  leveling,  and  then  construct  terraces  for  one  or 
more  fields  on  the  home  farm  or  neighboring  places.     Make  suitable  charges 
for  it. 

18.  Construct  storehouse  for  fruit,   and  storage  cellar  for  potato  and 
root  crops. 

Relating  Projects  to  School  Studies.— The  modern  methods  of 
teaching  agriculture  by  project  methods  require  that  the  work  in 


298  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  HOME  PROJECTS 

schools  be  correlated  closely  with  the  projects  of  the  farm.  In 
other  words,  the  projects  should  parallel  the  work  of  the  year  in 
school.  Much  of  the  school  time  of  the  student  is  spent  in  the 
study  of  his  home  projects  and  the  home  projects  of  his  classmates. 

In  this  system  a  close  parallelism  is  maintained  between  the 
work  and  the  studies  of  the  student.  Because  of  this  it  is  often 
desirable  that  the  projects  cover  a  period  of  about  twelve  months. 
At  least  the  first  twelve  months  of  the  work  on  any  project  should, 
if  possible,  parallel  the  studies  of  that  year.  If,  however,  conditions 
require  it,  the  project  work  may  continue  for  a  much  longer  period 
of  time. 

As  the  subjects  of  the  curriculum  require  the  student  to  take 
up  new  topics,  new  projects  should  be  undertaken  and  pursued 
in  addition  to  those  already  in  progress.  It  is  thus  evident  that 
the  student  may  be  pursuing  a  number  of  projects  at  the  same  time. 

It  is  by  means  of  pursuing  several  projects  that  the  student 
becomes  a  vocational  agriculturist  and  is  able  to  operate  and  man- 
age the  different  enterprises  of  a  farm. 

School  Management  when  Students  are  Pursuing  Home  Proj- 
ects.— In  many  schools  where  vocational  agriculture  is  taught  and 
where  students  are  expected  to  pursue  home  project  work  the 
principal  of  the  school  is  not  willing  to  make  adjustments  of  the 
schedule  from  time  to  time  to  allow  agricultural  students  time  for 
pursuing  their  project  work  at  home  during  rush  seasons  of  the 
year — at  planting  time  or  at  harvesting  time.  This  difficulty  is 
more  serious  with  projects  in  crop  production  than  with  projects 
in  animal  husbandry. 

Prospective  pupils  of  agriculture  in  such  schools  will  find  it  of 
great  importance  to  win  the  cooperation  of  the  principal  of  the 
school.  In  many  other  schools  the  teacher  of  agriculture  is  made 
the  principal  for  the  sake  of  making  such  adjustments  of  the  daily 
program  as  are  necessary  from  time  to  time  to  meet  the  exigencies 
of  the  work.  In  schools  where  the  above  mentioned  difficulty 
exists  some  of  the  following  suggestions  may  aid  the  instructor  of 
agriculture  to  meet  or  avoid  the  conditions: 

1.  If  possible,  have  students  choose  projects  which  require  little  absence 
from  school — those  which  do  not  require  the  important  steps  to  be  taken 
during  school  hours.     For  example,  Irish  potatoes  may  be  harvested  slowly 
while  sweet  potatoes  must  be  attended  promptly  when  a  killing  frost  comes. 
Market  garden  projects  require  special  attention  promptly  at  certain  times,  and 
the  student  must  be  absent  to  attend  to  them. 

2.  The  teacher  of  agriculture  must  solve  part  of  the  trouble  by  planning 


QUESTIONS  299 

to  have  all  of  his  class  absent  at  the  same  time.    This  would  mean  that  they 
should  have  projects  alike  or  similar  in  requirement*. 

3.  When  the  agricultural  class  is  out  of  school  have  other  students  do 
supplementary  work,  as  side  reading,  preparing  essays,  reports,  looking  up 
special  references,  making  charts,  drawing,  preparing  contest  work,  writing  for 
newspapers,  literary  society  work,  projects  of  their  own,  as  in  home  economics. 

4.  While  agricultural  students  are  absent  they  may  make  up  chiss  work 
or   balance   the  work  of  other  members  of  the   class  by  preparing  reixirts 
and  essays  on   their  home  projects.    These  may  be  presented  for  credit  in 
English  classes. 

5.  Some  teachers  of  agriculture  plan  to  have  the  periods  of  absence  brief 
and  frequent  rather  than  have  prolonged  jxjriods.     This  plan  also  usually 
suits  weather  conditions  better. 

6.  Try,  if  possible,  to  have  the  absent  time  of  students  fall  on  the  hours  or 
half  days  when  the  agricultural  work  is  scheduled.     Other  class  work  is  then 
uninterrupted.     If  roads  are  good,  the  students  may  return  in  time  for  their 
other  classes. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Collect  a  set  of  blanks  for  use  in  home  project  work.    Secure  these  from 
your  own  state  and  several  others.    Study  these  blanks  and  make  comparisons. 

2.  Write  out  fully  the  plans  of  a  project  with  field  crops. 

3.  The  same  for  a  project  in  animal  husbandry. 

4.  The  same  for  a  project  in  gardening. 

5.  The  same  for  a  project  in  small  fruits  or  orcharding. 
G.  The  same  for  a  project  in  farm  management. 

7.  Visit  projects  of  students  of  agriculture  until  you  have  seen  the  project 
work  in  all  the  above  mentioned  lines. 

8.  Make  a  list  of  things  which  a  student  should  record  in  his  notebook, 
while  pursuing  a  project,  in  addition  to  the  points  covered  by  the  state  blanks. 

9.  Make  a  project  score  card  for  use  of  instructors  in  judging  the  project 
work  of  students. 

10.  Subdivide  this  score  card  to   suit   some   particular  kind  of  project 
with  a  field  crop. 

11.  Conduct  an  exercise  in  taking  students  to  see  the  project   work  of 
other  students. 

12.  Compare  each  of  the  lists  of  projects  suggested  in  this  chapter  and, 
in  each  list,  select  two  which  you  think  are  better  suited  to  your  state  or  school 
than  the  others. 

13.  Formulate  several    questions   for  debate  on    "sizes  of  projects"  in 
different  lines  of  agriculture.     Discuss  these. 

14.  Make  a  list  of  the  graduates  and  former  students  who  are  fanning  in 
the  community  where  you  are  to  teach  or  in  some  other. 

15.  Study  the  effects  of  the  agricultural  training  which  they  received  while 
in  school  or  college. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Define  what  is  meant  by  an  agricultural  project,  and  distinguish  between 

that  and  an  exercise,  a  practicum,  or  exjx'riment. 

2.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  major  and  minor  projects. 

3.  What  is  meant  by  the  scope  of  a  project? 

4.  Who  should  agree  to  the  project  and  its  scope? 

5.  When  should  the  plans  of  a  project  be  made  by  students? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  a  list  of  project  oj>erations? 

7.  Why  should  students  make  a  study  of  the  principles  involved  in  each 

operation? 


300  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  HOME  PROJECTS 

8.  What  advantage  is  there  in  his  making  definite  citations  to  the  topic 

studied  or  to  be  studied? 

9.  If  there  is  no  published  outlines  of  a  project  to  be  pursued  by  a  student, 

who  should  make  the  outline? 

10.  Why  should  a  student  keep  a  notebook  while  studying  the  topic? 

11.  How  would  you  induce  students  to  be  systematic  and  careful  in  recording 

their  project  operations? 

12.  What  observations  should  he  be  taught  to  record  while  pursuing  his 

project?     Illustrate. 

13.  Give  a  summary  of  a  report  on  a  project  in  crop  production. 

14.  Mention  the  points  in  a  summary  of  a  livestock  project. 

15.  Why  should  you  induce  all  of  your  students  to  be  uniform  in  the  price 

allowed  for  feed  and  labor? 

16.  Mention  the  points  to  be  covered  in  an  analysis  of  the  results  of  projects 

in  crop  production. 

17.  Mention  the  points  to  be  covered  in  an  analysis  of  the  results  of  a  project 

with  livestock 

18.  What  points  should  be  included  in  a  set  of  record  forms? 

19.  What  are  the  essentials  of  a  milk  and  butter  record  form? 

20.  Under  what  conditions  is  it  important  to  keep  records  of  the  weight  of 

animals? 

21.  What  poultry  record  blanks  are  necessary? 

22.  Why  should  the  student  record  the  use  of  farm  implements  in  his  project 

work? 

23.  State  the  purposes  of  the  visits  to  projects  by  instructors. 

24.  What  should  be  the  attitude  of  the  instructor  when  visiting  projects? 

25.  State  the  instructor 's  relation  to  notebook  and  record  keeping. 

26.  Why  should  he  give  both  written  and  oral  instruction  in  visiting  projects? 

27.  What  is  the  value  of  a  project  score  card? 

28.  What  two  kinds  of  factors  are  to  be  judged  when  using  such  a  score  card? 

29.  State  how  you  will  probably  travel  in  visiting  the  project  work  in  the 

vicinity  of  your  school. 

30.  What  can  you  say  on  the  importance  of  good  roads  in  conducting  project 

work? 

31.  Why  should  the  students  be  taken  to  see  the  work  of  others? 

32.  Suggest  projects  with  field  crops. 

33.  Mention  eight  or  more  projects  with  dairy  cattle. 

34.  The  same  with  soil  improvement. 

35.  Give  a  good  list  of  projects  with  hogs. 

36.  Mention  several  projects  with  beef  cattle. 

37.  Give  nine  or  more  projects  in  sheep  raising. 

38.  Mention  six  or  more  projects  with  horses  and  mules. 

39.  Give  a  good  list  of  poultry  projects. 

40.  Give  a  list  of  vegetable  garden  projects. 

41.  Mention  five  kinds  of  projects  with  small  fruits. 

42.  How  can  home  projects  in  orcharding  be  confined  to  one  or  two  vears? 

43.  Would  you  advise  the  use  of  nursery  projects?    Mention  several. 

44.  Why  would  you  encourage  the  pursuit  of  projects  in  landscape  gardening? 

Suggest  several. 

45.  Enumerate  several  projects  in  farm  management. 

46.  The  same  in  farm  mechanics  and  engineering. 

47.  Why  should  the  project  work  be  closely  related  to  the  school  studies? 

48.  Give  your  views  regarding  school  management  when  students  may  be 

away  pursuing  home  projects. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
HOW  TO  USE  A  LAND  LABORATORY 

Land  Laboratory  a  Need. — Objective  teaching  is  essential  in  an 
applied  science  such  as  agriculture.  The  laboratory  method  is  a 
necessary  adjunct  of  the  teaching  of  agriculture  whether  conducted 
in  the  rural  school,  the  grades  of  the  town  school,  the  high  school, 
or  the  college.  Much  laboratory  work  can  be  done  in  the  rooms  of 
the  school  building,  either  those  devoted  to  agriculture  or  to  the 
general  sciences.  But  agricultural  principles  and  processes  that 
deal  with  the  outdoor  life  on  the  farm  need  for  their  proper  com- 
prehension and  practice  an  outdoor  working  place  for  the  pupils. 
This  may  be  either  the  home  farm  of  the  pupil  or  the  land  labora- 
tory of  the  school. 

Such  a  land  laboratory  is  just  as  important  for  the  pupils 
in  agriculture  as  is  an  indoor  laboratory  for  those  who  study 
chemistry  or  physics.  It  has  an  important  part  to  perform  in  the 
teaching  of  agriculture  which  must  be  performed  if  the  teaching 
is  to  be  fully  successful  and  which  cannot  be  performed  by  any 
other  means.  Valuable  as  are  the  textbook,  the  library,  the  indoor 
laboratory,  and  the  home  farm,  there  are  certain  essentials  which 
cannot  be  supplied  by  any  or  all  of  them.  The  land  latjoratory 
is  not  in  conflict  with  any  of  them,  but  is  supplemental  to  each. 
It  is  not  a  substitute  for  any  of  them,  nor  can  any  of  them  nor  all 
of  them  combined  be  a  substitute  for  it. 

Characteristics  of  the  Land  Laboratory. — The  land  laboratory 
should  be  from  one  quarter  acre  to  one  acre,  in  addition  to  the 
ornamental  campus  and  playgrounds,  where  facilities  for  its  proper 
care  and  use  are  limited.  This  may  be  expanded  to  two  or  three 
acres  or  more  where  certain  larger  uses  (mentioned  later)  are  to 
be  made  of  it  and  where  labor  and  funds  for  the  large  area 
are  available. 

It  should  be  near  the  school  building,  the  nearer  the  better, 
since  it  is  a  school  laboratory  and  not  a  "model  farm,"  an  "experi- 
ment farm,"  a  "demonstration  farm,"  or  any  other  kind  of  a 
"farm."  The  agriculture  class  should  be  able  to  reach  it,  perform 
their  work,  and  return  to  the  school  in  the  regular  allotment  of 
time  provided  in  the  school  program  and  not  encroach  upon  the 

301 


302 


HOW  TO  USE  A  LAND  LABORATORY 


time  of  the  preceding  or  the  following  recitations.  The  possibility 
of  accomplishing  this  easily  is  necessary  if  the  land  laboratory  is 
to  attain  its  fullest  usefulness  as  a  factor  in  the  successful  teaching 
of  agriculture. 

The  contour  and  the  soil  should  be  superior  and  should  be  suffi- 
ciently uniform  to  permit  the  lay-out  to  be  determined  solely  by 
the  needs  of  the  school.  Since  it  is  not  to  be  a  "farm"  there  is  no 
necessity  for  it  to  be  "typical"  of  the  local  farms.  A  degree  of 


?    4444  4  4  4  A  A  4444 


MAIN   ROAD 


Fio.  l.r>4. — Plans  for  improved  rural  school  grounds  of  about  two  acres  or  less,  showing 
areas  for  gardens  and  play.  (Arkansas  Department  of  Public  Instruction  and  U.  S.  Bureau 

of  Education.) 

similarity  would  be  advantageous  if  there  were  special  need  for 
illustrating  local  adaptability  of  crops. 

The  land  laboratory  should  be  upon  land  which  could  be  con- 
trolled by  the  school  authorities  for  a  term  of  years  in  order  that 
plans  once  established  shall  not  be  disturbed.  This  is  best  accom- 
plished by  the  school  owning  the  land,  but  if  this  is  not  practical 
it  should  be  held  under  a  long  time  lease. 

Plans. — After  a  careful  study  of  the  curriculum  in  agriculture 
the  land  laboratory  should  be  carefully  planned  to  meet  its  needs 
for  years  ahead  so  far  as  they  can  be  foreseen.  Blue  prints  should 
be  made  of  these  tentative  plans  and  filed  with  the  principal  or 
superintendent  and  the  officers  of  the  board.  A  copy  should  be 
framed  and  hung  in  the  school.  These  plans  should  be  general  and 
should  set  aside  space  for  the  perennial  crops,  preferably  along  the 


USES,  GENERAL 


303 


borders;  for  poultry,  if  it  is  to  IK*  kept;  and  a  large  space  mscrved 
for  annual  use.  Plans  for  the  use  of  the  annual  portion  should  l>e 
made  each  year,  blue  printed  and  filed  as  suggested  above.  The 
different  portions  of  the  grounds  should  l>e  suitably  separated  by 
walks  and  marked  by  neatly  painted  stake  signs.  The  different 
plants  and  crops  should  be  neatly  lalx>led  (Fig.  154).  Explanatory 
signs  should  be  erected  which  are  sufficiently  explicit  that  pupils 
and  visitors  may  understand  what  is  seen  and  may  learn  much 
from  mere  observation. 

Upkeep. — At  all  times  every  portion  of  the  land  laboratory 
should  be  properly  fertilized,  well  cultivated,  tidy,  orderly,  and 


Fin.   lo~>. — -A  good  method   of  marking  the  hind  laboratory  rnterprises  is  shown   in   this 
demonstration  of  cover  crop  on  school  land  laboratory  in  California.     (H.  I.  Sclmalirl.i 

free  from  weeds,  and  rubbish  (Fig.  156).  The  land  laboratory  is 
intended  to  be  a  factor  in  teaching,  and  as  such  it  is  quite  certain 
to  perform  its  function.  Whether  what  it  teaches  is  the  best  or 
only  the  indifferently  good  or  even  the  really  worst  is  for  the  person 
in  charge  to  determine  by  the  wisdom  and  skill  with  which  he 
handles  the  land  laboratory. 

Uses,  General. — The  land  laboratory  is  used  to  objectify  prin- 
ciples and  to  illustrate  certain  processes  that  cannot  be  fully  under- 
stood except  by  actual  performance.  Its  principal  purpose  is  to 
serve  as  a  means  of  teaching  the  pupils  of  the  agriculture  classes 
in  the  school  (Fig.  156).  Its  use  as  an  extension  factor  in  teaching 
the  out-of-school  population  is  wholly  secondary.  It  may  also 
be  used  to  supply  in  part  the  lack  of  certain  previous,  practical. 


304 


HOW  TO  USE  A  LAND  LABORATORY 


concrete  experiences  of  pupils  and  also  to  provide  new  concrete 
experiences  during  the  course  of  school  instruction  which  it  is 
impractical  to  obtain  at  the  time  from  the  farms.  It  is  also  to 
furnish  opportunities  for  observation  of  agricultural  conditions 
which  are  valuable  in  the  learning  process,  but  which,  because  of 
the  difficulty  of  taking  pupils  to  local  farms,  would  not  be  done 


Fia.  156. — Students  should  be  taught  the  horticultural  skills  and  many   others  on  the 
school  land.     (R.  S.  Mackintosh.) 

at  the  right  time  or  not  done  at  all.  It  also  makes  it  possible  for 
the  teacher  of  agriculture  to  control  the  time  and  conditions  so 
his  pupils  will  be  enabled  to  see  what  they  need  to  see  and  at  the 
time  they  need  to  see  it.  It  is  preeminently  adapted  to  group 
teaching,  in  which  it  excels  the  indoor  laboratory  work.  In  a 
school  period  an  entire  class  can  be  taught  how  to  perform  some 
process,  such,  for  example,  as  transplanting  tomato  plants,  and 
can  be  given  actual  practice  in  doing  it  under  guidance  and  criti- 
cism and  thus  prepare  for  their  home  project  work 

It  is  especially  valuable  in  influencing  the  choice  of  the  sequence 


USES,  GENERAL  305 

of  the  topics  in  the  curriculum  and  in  vitalizing  the  teaching  when 
this  sequence  is  pursued.  The  teacher  with  foresight  can  by  the 
use  of  the  land  laboratory  objectify  the  most  important  portions 
of  his  agriculture  work,  so  far  as  it  deals  with  plant  industry,  at 
the  exact  time  the  pupils  are  interested  in  any  particular  topic. 

It  also  furnishes  the  best  possible  opportunity  for  the  use  of 
the  problem  method  of  study  and  teaching. 

A  problem  of  seed  or  soil,  or  planting  or  cultivating,  or  care  or 
harvesting  is  imminent,  and  after  finding  from  the  library  the 
standards  proposed  by  others  for  its  solution  the  class  may  discuss 
the  procedure  and  then  proceed  to  its  actual  solution  in  the 
land  laboratory. 

It  does  not  remove  the  necessity  for  trips  to  observe  conaitions 
and  procedure,  nor  does  it  in  any  manner  take  the  place  of  demon- 
strations on  local  farms  for  the  community  benefit,  nor  of  the  homo 
project  work  of  the  pupil.  Observations  on  farms  are  necessary 
where  actual  farm  conditions  and  actual  farm  procedure  on  a 
practical  farming  scale  are  to  be  comprehended  by  the  pupils: 
but  there  are  many  principles  and  smaller  practices  which  the 
pupils  need  to  have  made  objective  to  them  when  a  trip  is  imprac- 
ticable and  for  which  the  teacher  needs  to  have  the  conditions 
under  his  own  control.  These  belong  on  the  land  laboratory  of 
the  school. 

Demonstrations  intended  for  the  observation  of  practical  faim- 
ing  with  the  purpose  of  improving  the  farm  practices  of  the  neigh- 
borhood through  imitation  should  be  placed  on  a  local  farm  well 
situated  for  easy  inspection.  There  is  little  use  for  them  on  the 
land  laboratory  of  the  school  excepting,  possibly,  in  a  new  country 
where  the  farmers  are  not  yet  prepared  to  take  charge  of  them. 
There  is  no  reason  why  even  those  placed  on  the  farmer's  farm 
should  not  be  under  the  auspices  of  the  school,  but  the  conditions 
of  soil,  care  and  management  should  be  met  as  they  would  l>e  on 
a  regular  farm. 

If  the  pupil  is  to  conduct  a  project  consisting  of  a  definite  farm 
management  unit  with  financial  profit  as  one  of  the  factors,  it 
should  be  on  the  home  farm  or  a  similar  portion  of  land  which  is 
under  the  control  of  the  pupil,  and  not  on  the  land  laboratory. 
The  home  project  specializes  upon  one  thing  while  the  land  labora- 
tory deals  with  fundamental  facts,  principles,  and  processes  which 
the  pupil  needs  to  know  in  order  that  he  may  apply  them  to  any 
one  of  many  projects.  This  objectifying  of  underlying,  essential 
20 


306        HOW  TO  USE  A  LAND  LABORATORY 

truths  applicable  to  farming  operations  distinguishes  the  land 
laboratory  from  the  home  project,  which  aims  at  the  actual  perform- 
ance of  some  one  related  series  of  farm  operations  under  practical 
farm  conditions  for  the  rewards  usually  expected  to  follow  such 
performance.  For  this  reason  the  land  laboratory  is  indispensable 
for  good  agriculture  work  in  the  elementary  grades  and  the  high 
school  regardless  of  the  amount  of  emphasis  which  may  be  laid 
upon  the  field  trips,  farm  demonstrations,  or  home  projects.  Far 
from  detracting  from  any  of  the  others,  it  prepares  the  pupil  to 
reap  a  larger  benefit  from  them. 

Uses,  Specific. — -The  manifold  difficulties  attending  the  equip- 
ping and  operating  of  a  school  "farm"  make  it  necessary  that  the 

FIG.  157.  Flo.  158. 


Flo.  157. — Among  other  things  to  teach  on  the  land  laboratory  is  the  field  selection  of  seeds. 
These  students  are  selecting  cotton  for  seed.  See  directions  in  agronomy  chapter.  (G.  R. 

Ransom,  Okla.) 

FIQ.   158. — On  the  school  land  teach  the  methods  of  de-tasseling  barren  stalks  and  alternate 
rows  of  corn.  (Benson,  Minn.) 

land  laboratory  shall  be  small,  that  animal  study  (excepting  such 
small  animals  as  poultry)  be  excluded,  and  that  it  be  used  primarily 
as  a  feature  of  the  regular  school  agricultural  work  and  only  second- 
arily as  a  feature  of  the  extension  work  of  the  agricultural  depart- 
ment. Its  greatest  usefulness  will  be  in  the  subjects  of  farm  crops, 
horticulture,  soils,  and  poultry. 

In  farm  crops,  methods  of  seed  selection  (Figs.  157  and  158), 
breeding,  harvesting,  grading,  storing,  and  testing  may  be  studied 
and  practiced,  each  new  class  inheriting  in  the  fall  the  crops  planted 
by  their  predecessors  in  the  spring  and  in  like  manner  leaving  an 
inheritance  to  their  successors  of  the  next  year.  Frequently  the 
classes  can  be  combined  for  the  fall  work.  In  this  way  the  "ear 


USES,  SPECIFIC 


307 


to  row"  test  of  corn;  the  "  bin"  selection,  tul>er  unit,  followed  by  the 

"  hill"  selection  of  potatoes,  and  similar  processes  may  l>e  conducted. 

Plant  studies  such  as  foliage,  stalk,  and  fruit  characteristics;  root 

distribution;  disease  resistance;  yield  in  relation  to  seed  character- 

Fio.  159.  Fia.  100. 


FIG.    159. — Students   learning  to   save  money  by  making  their  own  lime-sulfur  cm  Ihe  land 

laboratory  instead  of  buying  it  already  prepared.     (Joelton,  Tenn.) 

Fia.   ItiO. — Spraying   school    trees    with    same    material    to    kill    San    Joe6   scale.     (Horace 

McMurtry.) 


Fio.    161. — Top  working  of  fruit  trees  by  students,  Ontario,  Calif.     Sufficient  tree?  may  be 

grown  on  a  half  acre  to  furnish  the  school  orchard  practice  for  a  class.     The  community 

and  home  project  work  will  give  more.     (Chas.  .).  Booth.) 

istics,  soil  preparation,  and  methods  of  cultivation :  diseases  and  pests 
and  their  treatment  can  be  easily  adapted  to  class  work  (Figs.  159  and 
160).  The  various  processes  of  plant  propagation,  pruning,  trimming, 
and  care  (Fig.  161);  processes  of  soil  preparation;  processes  of  seed 
testing  and  preparation,  such  a*  potato  cutting,  may  be  illustrated 


SOS 


HOW  TO  USE  A  LAND  LABORATORY 


to  entire  classes.    Some  of  these  exercises  lend  themselves  well  to 
demonstrations  on  the  local  farms  if  suitable  ones  are  available. 

Crops  unfamiliar  to  pupils  and  not  easily  available  for  study 
in  the  neighborhood  may  be  produced  on  the  land  laboratory  and 
studied  as  they  grow.  New  varieties  may  be  treated  in  the  same 
manner,  though  when  it  is  deemed  advisable  to  test  varieties  for 
the  purpose  of  discovering  their  adaptation  to  local  use  it  should 
be  done  in  a  regular  way  on  a  local  farm.  Grains,  legumes,  forage 
crops,  tubers,  roots,  and  small  fruits  may  thus  be  introduced  on 


FIG.  162. — While  the  land  laboratory  may  contain  a  typical  home  garden  for  teaching  pur- 
poses, the   gardens  of  the  pupils  should  be  on  the  home  ground  whenever  possible,  as  is  that 
of  the  school  boy  shown  above.     (W.  V.  Longley.) 

the  land  laboratory  of  the  school  and  the  better  varieties  devel- 
oped later  on  the  local  farms. 

Another  justifiable  use  of  the  land  laboratory  is  for  the  raising 
of  supplies  for  use  in  the  indoor  laboratory.  Much  of  the  needed 
indoor  laboratory  material  may  be  obtained  only  from  surrounding 
farms,  but  there  is  a  great  deal  needed  which  can  be  obtained  by 
raising  it.  This  plan  has  the  advantage  that  the  school  is  able  to 
obtain  specimens  at  the  various  stages  of  growth  and  to  preserve 
them  in  that  stage  for  future  study,  besides  the  obvious  one  of 
studying  the  process  of  growth  in  the  live  plant  which  is  impractical 
if  trips  must  be  made  to  local  farms  for  that  purpose. 

In  producing  laboratory  supplies  it  is  not  advisable  to  raise  each 


USES,  SPECIFIC 


309 


year  a  small  supply  of  everything  needed  the  next  year,  but  a  large 
enough  quantity  of  one  kind  should  1x3  raised  one  year  to  last  several 
years,  a  several  years'  supply  of  some  other  things  being  raised  each 
succeeding  year.  Such  supplies  must  be  carefully  prepared  for  stor- 


Fio.  163. — This  ten-acre  land  laboratory  at  the  high  school,  Hemidji,  Minnesota,  with  the 

use  of  the  land  of  the  adjoining  fairgrounds,  enabled  the  school  to  render  invaluable  benefits 

to  the  students  and  to  the  pioneer  farmers  of  this  new  part  of  the  state. 


Fio.   164. — A  "close  up"  view  of  a  small  portion  of  above  fiirni  devoted  to  instructing  the 
younger  pupils  in  gardening.     (II.  M.  Gile.) 

age  and  placed  where  they  are  safe  from  vermin,  light,  heat,  cold,  or 
moisture  according  to  their  characteristics.  There  are  many  bulle- 
tins giving  specific  instructions  on  how  to  prepare  and  preserve  them. 
While  vegetable  gardens  of  individual  pupils  arc  better  upon 
the  home  grounds  (Fig.  162)  or  vacant  land  near  the  home,  one 
of  the  most  valuable  uses  of  the  school  land  laboratory  is  to  main- 
tain a  typical  family  vegetable  garden  (Figs.  163  and  164).  Few 


310 


HOW  TO  USE  A  LAND  LABORATORY 


families  know  how  to  plan  and  care  for  a  good  vegetable  garden 
and  still  fewer  do  so.  Such  a  garden  on  the  land  laboratory  should 
be  a  class  problem  so  all  pupils  may  become  familiar  with  all  the 
features  of  it.  The  class  should  plan,  select  seeds,  plant,  and  care 


Fio.  16.". — This  general  view  of  the  land  laboratory  at   Sleepy  Eye  High  Srhool  shows 

horticulture  and  landscape  work  in  the  foreground  and  many  field  crop  enterprises  of  the 

agriculture  work  in  agronomy  beyond.     (J.  A.  Cederstrom. ) 

for  the  garden.  Such  a  garden  should  be  arranged  to  economize 
man  labor  and  use  horse  labor  to  the  greatest  possible  extent. 
The  plan  should  provide  for  the  replacement  of  certain  crops  by 
later  ones,  for  perennials  such  as  asparagus,  for  small  fruits,  and 


FIG.  166. — A  "close  up"  of  a  corner  of  the  same  land  laboratory.     (J.  A.  Cederstrom.) 

for  all  vegetables  adapted  to  local  conditions  in  quantities  suitable 
for  the  typical  family.  Economic  and  efficient  cultivation,  harvest- 
ing, and  storage  should  be  taught.  The  preparation  and  care  of 
this  garden  will  furnish  the  opportunity  of  instructing  in  a  group 
the  entire  class  preparatory  to  their  taking  the  same  steps  in  their 
home  gardens  (Figs.  165,  166,  and  167),  thereby  saving  much  time 
of  the  instructor  that  would  otherwise  need  to  be  spent  in  trips  to 


EQUIPMENT 


311 


individual  gardens  and  many  failures  of  pupils  from  attempt  ing 
the  process  without  sufficient  previous  instruction  accompanied 
with  practice.  The  produce  from  this  typical  garden  can  IK;  sold 
as  harvested  or  the  home  economics  class,  if  there  l>c  one,  can  put 
it  in  containers  and  sell  it  in  that  form,  the  proceeds  to  IK;  devoted 
to  some  justifiable  school  use. 

The  ornamental  campus  of  the  school,  the  grounds  of  the 
teaeherage,  the  playgrounds,  and  the  land  laboratory  can  be  utilized 
in  performing  many  of  the  enterprises  suggested  in  the  chapters 


• .  • 


Fio.   167. — A  small  portion  of  the  land  laboratory  may  he  used  to  instruct  pupils  in  gardening 
methods  so  they  can  succeed  better  iti  their  home  gardens.     (A.  J.  Socor.) 

on  horticulture,  farm  mechanics,  and  projects.  In  addition  to 
teaching  the  specific  processes  involved,  this  will  cultivate  an 
interest  and  pride  in  the  school  and  its  prosily. 

Equipment. — On  a  small  school  "farm,"  equipment  is  a  serious 
item  because  of  the  initial  expense  and  the  continuously  high 
overhead.  Even  on  a  large  land  laboratory  the  equipment  is 
small,  inexpensive,  and  relatively  economical.  If  there  is  a  suitable 
storage  space  in  the  school  building  and  the  land  laboratory  is 
sufficiently  near,  no  building  is  necessary  unless  chickens  or  other 
small  animals  are  to  be  kept.  If  tools,  seed,  and  the  small  machines 
cannot  be  stored  in  the  school  building,  a  plain  substantial  building 
will  be  needed  for  that  purpose  on  the  land  laboratory.  The  space 
therein  should  be  carefully  allotted  to  the  different  articles  stored 
there  and  everything  should  be  kept  in  its  place.  Habituate  the  pupils 
to  having  "a  place  for  everything  and  everything  in  its  place." 

The  schools  should  not  own  the  horse-drawn  machines,  but 


312 


HOW  TO  USE  A  LAND  LABORATORY 


should  hire  horses,  men  and  machines  when  such  work  is  to  be 
done.  Some  of  the  smaller  machines  driven  by  internal  combustion 
engines1  may  be  utilized  to  good  advantage.  There  should  be  a 
supply  of  whatever  tools  arc  necessary  to  perform  the  work  required 
by  the  curriculum.  Those  that  are  to  be  used  by  pupils  should 
be  in  sufficient  number's  that  all  may  keep  employed.  Hotbeds, 
coldframes,  lath  houses,  and  whatever  similar  equipment  the 
climate  requires  should  be  provided.  If  a  greenhouse  is  not  pro- 
vided at  the  schoolhouse  (the  better  plan  Fig.  168),  one  may  be 
erected  elsewhere  on  the  land.  In  most  localities  it  will  be  advis- 


FIG.  168. — Interior  view  of  greenhouse  in  Massachusetts.  Students  may  use  such  a  house 
for  early  plant  production,  and  the  young  plants  may  be  sold  in  the  market  or  transplanted 
to  the  school  land.  Such  a  greenhouse  should  be  connected  with  the  main  building  if  possible. 

(E.  H.  Scott.) 

able  to  have  the  laboratory  well  fenced  with  woven  wire  high 
enough  to  prevent  entrance  except  at  the  gate,  which  it  may  be 
necessary  to  keep  locked  at  night  and  when  the  laboratory  is  not 
in  charge  of  some  one.  All  equipment  should  be  the  property  of 
the  school  and  should  be  carefully  inventoried  and  the  inventory 
checked  twice  a  year. 

Care  of  the  Land  Laboratory. — The  land  laboratory  should  be 
in  the  direct  charge  of  the  teacher  of  agriculture.  Sufficient  funds 
should  be  set  aside  for  its  successful  operation.  All  work  not 
furnishing  definite  educational  returns  to  the  worker  should  be 
paid  for  from  this  fund  in  the  employment  of  laborers,  preference 
being  given  to  competent  agricultural  students.  Work  which 

lE.g.,  the  various  garden  tractors. 


HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  LAND  LABORATORY  PAY 


313 


pupils  are  required  to  do  as  a  part  of  their  educational  activities 
should  not  be  paid  for  any  more  than  should  laboratory  work  in 
chemistry  or  physics.  Care  must  be  taken  that  exact  justice  is 
done  in  this  matter. 

While  the  agriculture  teacher  should  not  hesitate  to  don  his 


FIG.  169. 


Fio.   170. 


ft         •  lilMM"-- 


Fio.  169. — Students  working  at  twenty-five  cents  per  hour  with  hoes  in  cabbaRe  field. 
Fio.  170. — Three-acre  truck  garden  where  students  work  on  the  profit-sharing  basis. 

(T.  G.  Brown.) 

working  clothes  and  do  anything  necessary  for  the  success  of  the 
educational  work  in  this  laboratory,  or  in  an  emergency  to  perform 
the  non-educational  work,  the  school  cannot  afford  to  have  him 


Fio.   171. — The  school  land  may  be  used  to  Rrow  plants  to  be  sold  for  beautifying  homes 
and  schools.     (.1.  A.  Cederstrom.) 

neglect  more  important  duties  in  order  to  perform  the  unskilled 
labor  which  can  be  procured  at  much  less  expense  (Figs.  169  and  170). 
How  to  Make  the  Land  Laboratory  Pay. — The  hind  laboratory 
is  a  teaching  enterprise  and  not  a  farming  enterprise.  Like  the 
class-room,  the  library,  the  chemical  laboratory,  and  the  physical 


314  HOW  TO  USE  A  LAND  LABORATORY 

laboratory  of  the  school,  its  purpose  is  to  spend  money  wisely  for 
the  education  of  the  pupils  and  not  to  make  money  for  the  school 
treasury.  It  should  be  made  to  pay  a  profit,  but  the  profit  should 
be  calculated  in  terms  of  knowledge  and  wisdom,  not  in  dollars 
and  cents.  The  first  aim  should  be  to  produce  the  largest  educa- 
tional return  to  the  boys  and  girls.  If  in  the  legitimate  pursuit 
of  this  aim  and  without  hampering  educational  efficiency  some 
money  income  can  be  produced  to  aid  in  reducing  the  cost,  it  should 
be  welcomed  (Fig.  171);  but  under  no  circumstances  should  the 
desire  for  a  money  income  from  the  land  laboratory  be  the  cause 
of  lessening  in  any  way  the  efforts  for  the  greatest  possible  educa- 
tional results.  Indeed,  if  the  cash  income  from  a  land  laboratory 
(not  a  farm)  were  greater  than  the  cash  outlay,  it  should  prompt  a 
careful  inquiry  into  the  character  and  quality  of  the  teaching  of 
agriculture  in  that  school. 

Problems  of  a  Large  School  Farm. — Experience  is  rapidly  demonstrating 
that  for  regular  elementary  and  secondary  schools  the  use  of  land  should  be 
limited  to  an  area  no  larger  than  is  necessary  to  serve  the  need  of  a  land 
laboratory  as  set  forth  in  the  preceding  pages  of  this  chapter.  Special  types 
of  schools  or  unusual  economic,  sociological,  or  agricultural  conditions  may 
make  advisable  the  use  of  a  regular  farm  under  the  control  of  the  school. 
If  this  is  done,  the  principal  problems  confronting  those  in  charge  will  not  be 
those  of  the  use  of  the  land  laboratory  as  an  adjunct  in  the  teaching  of  agricul- 
ture to  the  students  of  the  school  but  will  be  that  of  making  practical  the 
operation  of  a  farm  by  an  institution  instead  of  by  an  individual. 

In  so  far  as  the  farm  is  used  as  an  aid  to  teaching,  the  contents  of  the  fore- 
going pages  in  this  chapter  will  be  of  assistance.  To  overcome  some  of  the 
difficulties  arising  from  its  being  a  farm  instead  of  a  laboratory  the  following 
condensed  suggestions  may  be  helpful. 

1.  The  principal  difficulties  arise  from  the  following  conditions:    (a)  The 
farm  being  either  too  small  to  be  an  economical  farm  management  unit  or  too 
large  to  receive  the  proper  attention  of  those  in  charge  of  the  school;  (6)  con- 
taining too  many  endeavors  to  be  financially  profitable  or  too  few  to  be  edu- 
cationally efficient;  (c)  possessing  too  much  capital  for  the  educational  return 
received  or  too  little  for  full  success  as  a  money  making  enterprise;  (d)  having 
too  many  heads,  such  as  presidents,  principals,  boards,  committees,  teachers, 
and  foremen,  to  be  successful  either  educationally  or  financially;  (e)  too  much 
fault-finding  and  diversity  of  opinion  and  too  little  encouragement  and  ap- 
proval; (/)  too  limited  markets  for  products  most  advantageously  raised  on  an 
institutional  farm;  (g)  too  difficult  to  coordinate  the  interest  of  the  student 
with  the  necessary  routine  of  a  practical  farm;  (h)  too  difficult  to  demonstrate 
scientific  processes,  obtain  the  active  interest  of  the  farmer,  and  produce  a 
profit  in  the  same  operation;  (i)  too  many  changes  of  agriculture  teachers 
resulting  in  (j)  too  limited  a  mastery  of  the  community  situation  by  the  school. 

2.  All  practical  work  which  is  distinctly  educational  should  be  performed 
by  students  without  pay  working  under  a  competent  foreman  or  instructor. 

3.  Much  of  the  labor  on  large  farms  should  be  performed  by  students 
pursuing  school  farm  projects  (Fig.  170). 

4.  Certain  areas  on  the  farm  should  be  apportioned  among  the  students 


EXERCISES  AND  QUESTION'S  315 

pursuing  projects.    Even  the  livestock  of  the  farm  may  l>e  apportioned  among 
the  students  for  project  pursues. 

5.  All  routine,  non-educational  work  on  the  farm  not  ix'rformcd  in  the 
pursuit  of  projects  should  be  paid  for  by  the  school  farm,  preference  being 
given  to  students  in  employing  this  kind  of  labor. 

6.  As  foremen,  superior   students   are    to  be   preferred    above   unintel- 
ligent workmen. 

7.  Let  the  products  of  the  school  farm  projects  and  the  other  products 
of  the  school  farm  be  sold  at  dining  halls  and  elsewhere  at  regular  market  prices. 

8.  Train  students  in  salesmanship,  in  cooperation,  and  in  studying  market- 
ing conditions  through  marketing  their  own  products. 

9.  Stalls  for  the  sale  of  school  farm  products  mav  be  established  by  stu- 
dents along  the  roadside  or  in  city  centers.    Suix>rior  business  methods  should 
be  used  in  preparing  products  for  market,  advertising,  and  conducting  the 
marketing  enterprise. 

10.  Remember  that  one  of  the  chief  values  of  the  large  school  farm  is  its 
influence  upon  the  community. 

EXERCISES  AND  QUESTIONS 

1.  State  the  size  of  any  land  laboratories  with  which  you  are  familiar 
and  tell  what  you  know  of  the  effect  of  the  size  upon  the  educational  results. 

2.  Give  the  distances  of  any  such  land  laboratory  from  the  school  building, 
the  length  of  time  it  takes  a  class  to  go  between  them,  and  the  effects  upon  tin- 
work  of  the  school. 

3.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  school  district  own- 
ing the  land  for  the  laboratory?    Ix>asing  it? 

4.  Make  a  drawing  showing  a  desirable  general  plan  for  a  land  laboratory 
in  your  locality.    Show  relative  dimensions  and  location  of  small  fruits,  trees, 
shrubs,  annuals. 

5.  Give  the  wording  of  explanatory  signs  that  you  would  expect  to  sec 
in  a  land  laboratory. 

C.  Describe  a  land  laboratory  you  have  seen.     What  did  you  learn  that 
you  were  prompted  to  emulate?     To  avoid? 

7.  What  are  the  principal  objections  to  the  use  of  the  land  laboratory  as 
an  extension  enterprise? 

8.  Illustrate  how  the  land  laboratory  might  supply  the  pupil  with  a  val- 
uable experience  which  he  lacked. 

9.  How  it  might  save  many  trips  to  farms. 

10.  Relate  a  few  specific  ways  in  which  the  teacher  can  use  the  land  labora- 
tory advantageously  for  group  instruction. 

11.  State  five  provisions  the  school  may  make  on  the  land  laboratory  in 
the  spring  for  valuable  lessons  to  be  learned  in  the  fall. 

12.  State  five  problems  of  interest  to  pupils  that  can  be  solved  by  the 
use  of  the  land  laboratory. 

13.  Discriminate  between  the  use  of  the  land  laboratory  and  observation 
trips  to  the  farms;  demonstration  work  on  farms;  home  project  work. 

14.  Name  three  demonstrations  best  adapted  to  use  on  regular  farms. 

15.  State  definitely  five  crop  projects  suitable  for  home  work  on  farm* 
in  your  locality. 

16.  Show  how  the  pupil's  work  on  the  land  laboratory  may  fit  him  for 
more  successful  project  work. 

17.  Name  ten  specific  things  that  would  be  suitable  for  placing  on  the  land 
laboratory  of  the  school. 

18.  Do  you  know  of  any  crops,  or  varieties,  or  p-ocesses  th;>t  have  entered 
your  neighborhood  by  way  of  the  land  laboratory  of  the  school'.' 


316  HOW  TO  USE  A  LAND  LABORATORY 

19.  Make  a  list  of  ten  things  needed  for  indoor  laboratory  work  that 
should  be  produced  on  the  land  laboratory. 

20.  Which  of  these  could  be  perserved  for  three  years?    How? 

21.  Draw  a  plan  of  a  family  vegetable  garden  suitable  for  your  neighbor- 
hood, showing  the  location  and  arrangement  of  vegetables. 

22.  Make  a  list  of  the  vegetables  that  such  a  garden  should  contain,  the 
amount  of  each  that   should  be  produced,  and  the  space  required  to  raise 
each  amount. 

23.  Draw  a  plan  to  scale  that  will  produce  the  results  projected  in 
exercise  22. 

24.  Make  a  list  of  the  quantity  of  each  kind  of  seed  needed  and  the  cost. 

25.  If  the  garden  products  are  put  up  by  the  home  economics  class  and 
sold,  how   should    the   proceeds   be   apportioned   between   agriculture   and 
home  economics? 

26.  Make  a  list  of  small  machines  that  should  be  owned  by  the  school  for 
a  land  laboratory  at  your  school,  including  prices. 

27.  Make  a  list  of  tools  the  teacher  will  need  for  his  work. 

28.  Make  a  list  of  tools  pupils  will  need,  and  the  cost  of  enough  to  supply 
a  class  of  ten. 

29.  Select  a  kind  of  woven-wire  fencing  for  a  land  laboratory  and  give 
reasons  for  your  choice.     Determine  the  entire  cost  of  buying  and  erecting 
such  a  fence. 

30.  What  are  some  of  the  things  the  agriculture  teacher  should  do  himself 
on  the  land  laboratory?    Why? 

31.  What  should  he  hire  done?    Why? 

32.  Why  do  some  people  expect  the  school  land  laboratory  to  pay  a 
money  profit? 

33.  Is  it  advisable  for  a  public  school  to  run  a  farm?    Why? 

34.  Can  a  piece  of  school  land  from  one-tenth  to  one-twentieth  the  size 
of  a  local  farm  be  successful  as  a  "model  farm"?    Why? 

35.  Name  some  things  that  might  be  a  source  of  income  to  the  school 
land  laboratory  without  detracting  from  its  educational  efficiency. 

REFERENCES 

"Division  of  Agricultural  Education,"  University  of    Minnesota,  St.  Paul, 

Minn.,  Master's  Thesis.    (W.  F.  Lusk.) 
HUMMELL,  W.  G.  AND  BERTHA  R. :  "Materials  and  Methods  in  High-School 

Agriculture." 

HUMMELL,  W.  G. :  "Utilization  of  Land  by  High  Schools  Teaching  Agriculture." 
NOLAN,  ARETAS  W.:  "The  Teaching  of  Agriculture." 
STIMSON,  Rums  W. :  "Vocational  Agricultural  Education." 
STORM,  A.  V.:  "The  Teaching  of  Agriculture." 
MERRITT,  EUGENE:   "Use  of  Land  in  Teaching  Agriculture  in  Secondary 

Schools,"  U.  S.  D.  A.  Bulletin  213,  1915. 


CHAPTER  XV 
HOW  TO  EQUIP  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 

ROOMS   AND    FURNITURE 

IT  is  the  business  of  the  officers  of  organization  and  administra- 
tion to  furnish  the  rooms  and  the  equipment.  It  is  the  business 
of  the  teacher  of  agriculture  to  know  what  is  needed  and  how  it 
can  be  obtained  and  to  urge  the  necessity  upon  them.  The  number 
and  size  of  rooms  and  the  amount  and  kind  of  equipment  will 
depend  upon  the  curriculum  to  be  taught,  the  numbers  and  grades 
of  students  to  take  agriculture,  the  extent  to  which  the  agriculture 
department  is  to  become  a  service  center  to  the  agricultural  com- 
munity, and  the  money  available.  The  idea,  somewhat  prevalent, 
that  agriculture  can  be  taught  with  no  equipment  and  no  expense 
is  misleading.  To  be  sure  the  subject  is  so  rich  in  interest-creating 
content  and  so  much  illustrative  material  can  be  obtained  from 
nearby  farms  that  very  valuable  work  can  be  done  with  very  little 
cash  outlay.  This  is  true  of  physics,  chemistry,  and  biology.  But 
if  really  worth-while  work  is  to  be  done,  suitable  rooms  and  equip- 
ment must  be  provided  and  money  expended.  If  all  needed  equip- 
ment were  to  be  owned  by  the  school,  agriculture  would  be  quite 
expensive;  but  some,  such  as  animals  and  machinery,  can  l>e  l>or- 
rowed  from  members  of  the  community ;  others,  such  as  test  tubes 
and  racks,  ring  stands,  microscopes,  dissecting  needles  and  forceps, 
can  be  used  in  common  with  the  science  departments,  while  others 
that  do  not  need  great  refinement  or  precision  may  be  made  in 
the  shops  of  the  school  or  by  local  workmen.  Even  with  these 
plans  well  executed  to  their  limits  there  will  be  much  to  purchase 
if  the  agriculture  is  to  be  well  taught. 

Rooms. — If  the  needs  of  the  school  and  the  community  were 
sufficient  to  warrant  it,  an  agriculture  department  in  a  secondary 
school  could  use  the  following  rooms: 

A  recitation  room,  a  laboratory  adjacent,  a  dairy  room,  a  com- 
bined livestock-judging,  rough-work  and  machinery  room,  a  store- 
room, a  greenhouse,  and  a  dark  room.  Few  high  schools  with  one 
agriculture  teacher  would  attempt  so  elaborate  a  plan. 

A  more  practical  arrangement  for  the  high  school  of  average 
size  serving  an  agricultural  community  is  a  condensation  and 
modification  of  this  list.  The  laboratory  and  recitation  work 

317 


318 


HOW  TO  EQUIP  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 


would  be  done  in  one  room  with  the  furniture  arranged  as  stated 
later.  The  work  connected  with  dairy  products  that  is  practiced 
on  the  ordinary  farm,  such  as  milk  and  cream  testing  and  cream 


-">; 


Fio.   172.  —  A  small   greenhouse  is  helpful  in  teaching  agriculture  during  the  long  winters 

of  the  northern  states.     When  suitable  materials  are  purchased,  students  can  erect  such  a 

house.     (A.  A.  Sather,  X.  Dak.,  and  R.  A.  Mooney,  N.  H.) 

separating,  can  he  performed  in  the  recitation-laboratory  room. 
The  greenhouse  is  valuable  in  freezing  latitudes,  but  can  be 
used  jointly  by  agriculture,  botany,  and  other  departments  of  the 
school  (Fig.  172). 


PRACTICAL  ARRANGEMENT  FOR  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  319 

The  dark  room  is  not  a  necessity  but  is  very  valuable,  not  only 
for  the  agriculture  but  for  other  departments  and  could  Ix;  used 
by  all.  It  need  not  be  large;  and  may  be  in  the  interior  of  the 
building,  and  as  it  needs  very  little  furnishing  except  running  water 
and  a  sink  it  need  not  be  expensive. 

Storage  space  is  essential.  It  may  l>c,  if  necessary,  space  ill- 
adapted  to  class-room  work,  but  should  be  dry,  light  enough  to 
properly  obtain  and  replace  things,  and  convenient  to  the  recita- 
tion room. 

If  the  gymnasium  is  in  the  basement  or  on  the  ground  floor, 


Fio.  173. — By  the  use  of  plenty  of  sawdust  and  some  homo-made  "bleachers,"  this  srhool 
converted  thia  space  into  a  serviceable  stock-judging  room  for  the  farmers'  short  course. 

accessible  from  outside  through  wide,  high  doors,  it  can  be  utilized 
for  machinery  work  and  stock  judging  by  using  a  loose  false  floor 
or  plenty  of  sawdust  or  similar  covering  (Fig.  173). 

By  this  arrangement  the  agriculture  department  occupies  only 
one  room  suitable  for  regular  class  work  of  the  schools,  the  other 
rooms  being  either  inexpensive  space  not  otherwise  usable,  or 
rooms  used  in  conjunction  with  other  activities  of  the  school. 
If  the  recitation  room  and  storage  room  are  to  be  newly  constructed, 
they  should  be  made  mouse-proof  by  concrete  and  woven  wire 
construction.  If  rooms  already  constructed  are  to  be  used,  they 
should  be  proofed  as  well  as  possible  by  use  of  these  materials. 

The  agriculture  room  should  not  be  used  for  other  purposes. 
The  large  amount  of  special  equipment  and  supplies  and  the  neces- 


320         HOW  TO  EQUIP  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 


sity  of  keeping  some  of  it  in  active  duty  from  one  day  to  the  next 
make  it  difficult  to  use  the  room  for  other  purposes  without  either 
causing  much  extra  labor  in  caring  for  important  and  often  expen- 
sive equipment  or  risking  inconvenience  and  loss  through  the  pres- 
ence of  other  classes. 

In  addition  to  these  rooms,  a  room  for  the  farm  shop  work 
should  be  provided  (Fig.  174)  unless  the  school  has  provided  suit- 
able room  and  equipment  for  its  mechanic  arts  classes,  in  which 
case  they  may  be  used  for  instruction  in  farm  mechanics  (Fig.  175). 


TOOL  cuxitrr 


0 


Fia.   174. — Plan  of  room  for  farm  shop  work  at  the  school.     (Bulletin,  University  of  State 

of  N.  Y.) 

Fixtures. — The  main  agriculture  room,  the  recitation-laboratory 
(Fig.  176),  should  have  the  general  characteristics  of  any  class-room 
and  if  possible  be  accessible  from  the  outside  so  that  farmers  may 
enter  without  the  embarrassment  of  traveling  the  school  corridors. 
It  should  have  electrical  connection  in  the  wall  near  the  proper 
location  of  the  stereopticon  and  reflectoscope.  A  sink  with  work 
table,  running  water,  and  waste  pipe  should  be  at  the  side  of  the 
room  where  it  is  light.  Gas  connection  near  the  work  table  with 
a  plate  for  heating  water  is  convenient.  Slate  blackboard  of 
maximum  width  at  the  front  and  the  interior  side  of  the  room 


FIXTURES 


321 


with  additional  sliding  blackboard  at  the  front,  are  needed.  Mold- 
ing should  extend  around  the  entire  room  for  suspending  pictures, 
charts,  and  certain  apparatus,  such  as  some  types  of  s<*xl-corn 
racks.  Windows  should  be  provided  with  close-fitting  dark  shades 
to  darken  the  room  for  the  use  of  the  stereopticon  and  opaque 
projection.  Folding  display  racks  should  t>c  attached  to  the  wall 
at  the  front  of  the  room.  If  a  motion  picture  machine  is  to  be  used 
in  this  room,  a  platform,  perhaps  movable,  in  the  rear  of  the  room 
to  elevate  the  machine  above  the  heads  of  the  audience  should  IK; 


FIG.  175. — Shop  and  articles,  including  benches,  made  by  students  in  vocational  agriculture, 
at  Lamar,  Ark.  Equipment  for  teaching  farm  shop  work  need  not  be  expensive.  (M-  It. 

Ensign.) 

provided  and  such  a  booth  as  insurance  rules  and  the  kind  of 
machine  and  film  require.  It  is  probably  better  to  have  the  motion 
picture  machine  placed  in  the  assembly  room  or  other  large  room 
of  the  school  and  to  take  the  agriculture  classes  there  for  any 
agricultural  films  that  are  used. 

A  good  screen  for  slides  and  reflectoscope  work  should  be  mounted 
on  a  spring  roller  over  the  blackboard  at  the  front  of  the  room. 

Cupboards,  display  cases,  and  similar  equipment  may  be  a  part 
of  the  fixtures  by  being  attached  permanently  to  the  walls,  but  as 
changing  the  agriculture  work  to  other  quarters  is  always  a  possi- 
bility, as  also  is  salvaging  in  case  of  fire,  it  is  a  wise  precaution  to 
provide  them  as  furniture  rather  than  fixtures. 
21 


322         HOW  TO  EQUIP  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 

The  storage  room  should  have  open  shelves  for  general  supplies ; 
locked  cupboards  for  those  requiring  greater  care;  vermin-proof 
containers  for  such  supplies  as  attract  vermin;  racks  for  such  things 


FIG.    170.  —  Back  and  front  of  main  agricultural  room,  Stanley,  Wisconsin.     The  cases  at 
the  left  arc  convenient,  but  should  be  protected  from  dust. 

as  corn  trays  (unless  they  are  provided  in  the  recitation  room); 
hooks  for  such  things  as  can  be  so  stored;  and  open  floor  space  for 
such  apparatus  as  trap  nests,  cream  separators,  and  seed-corn 
graders  when  not  in  use.  The  room  should  be  well  locked,  with 


FURNITURE  323 

keys  for  the  teacher,  the  custodian  of  the  building,  and  the  executive 
officer  of  the  school. 

The  dark-room  should  have  running  water  and  wa.stc-pi|M:  con- 
nections, sink,  light  (electric  preferred)  with  ruby  protection  and 
ruby  windows,  and  should  be  light  tight. 

The  greenhouse  should  be  so  placed  as  to  be  in  the  sun  all  day 
and  easily  accessible  from  the  agriculture  and  the  botany  rooms. 

If  the  gymnasium  is  to  be  used  for  stock  judging  or  farmers' 
week  meetings,  extra  bleachers  may  be  provided,  so  constructed 
that  they  can  be  taken  apart  and  removed  to  be  stored  when  not 


Fio.   177. — This  combined  assembly  room,  stork  pavilion,  display  room,  and  gymnasium  is 

worth  thoughtful  consideration  by  schools  able  to  erect  and  to  use  to  advantage  a  building 

of  its  dimensions  and  cost.      (II.   X.   boomis.)      (See  text.) 

in  use.  A  gangplank,  smooth  on  one  side  for  machinery  and 
cleated  on  the  other  for  livestock,  should  be  provided.  Little  else 
is  necessary  for  fixtures  in  this  room.1 

Furniture. — The  teacher  should  have  a  combined  desk  and 
demonstration  table,  with  plenty  of  drawers  and  a  stain-proof  and 
mar-proof  top,  and  large  enough  to  provide  space  for  any 
desired  demonstration. 

There  are  two  good  plans  for  combining  the  recitation  and 
laboratory  work  in  one  room.  The  students  may  be  provided  with 
flat-top  working  tables,  narrow  and  long,  accommodating  two 

1  Smith  Agricultural  School,  Northampton,  Mass.,  has  a  combined  stock 
pavilion,  assembly  room,  and  display  room  which  is  worthy  of  study  if  so 
elaborate  an  arrangement  is  desired  (Fig.  177). 


324 


HOW  TO  EQUIP  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 


pupils  sitting  side  by  side  and  both  facing  the  front  of  the  room 
(Fig.  178).  Directly  under  the  table  top  are  three  shallow  drawers. 
Under  the  middle  drawer  is  another  drawer,  and  under  this  a  large 
cupboard  for  larger  articles  to  be  used  in  common.  The  drawers 
are  fitted  with  master-keyed  locks.  Small,  closely  constructed 


/IGKICULTVKIL        T/4BLF 

FIG.  178. — Photograph  and  working  drawing  of  agriculture-laboratory  table  described  in 
the  text.  This  is  a  modification  by  A.  M.  Field  and  J.  V.  Ankeney  of  a  biology  table  made 

by  the  Kewaunee  Mfg.  Co.,  Kewaunee,  Wisconsin. 

chairs  without  arms  are  used.  Tables  and  chairs  are  loose  from 
the  floor.  All  pupils  sit  facing  the  teacher's  desk  (or  any  other 
point  desired),  no  pupil  is  facing  another,  each  has  working  space, 
writing  space,  and  drawer  space  available  at  any  moment  without 
the  confusion  of  moving. 

With  this  arrangement  any  portion  or  portions  of  any  recitation 
may  be  devoted  to  any  method  of  instruction,  quiz,  examination, 
lecture,  laboratory,  conversation,  demonstration,  or  a  combination 


FURNITURE 


32/5 


of  any  or  all  of  them  without  loss  of  time  or  attention  and  with  the 
best  possible  conditions  surrounding  the  pupil  and  the  teacher  for 
each  method. 

Such  a  pupils'  work  table  was  designed  by  the  faculty  of  the 
Division  of  Agricultural  Education  of  the  University  of  Minnesota 


Fin.  179. — Front  and  rear  of  main  agricultural  room,  Cleveland,  Tennessee,  showing  tyre 
of  chairs,  wall  charts,  teaching  materials,  apparatus  case,  and  bookcase.  (Jas.  T.  Lovell.) 

and  manufactured  for  them  by  the  Kewaunoe  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany, Kewaunee,  Wisconsin.  Compare  with  figure  180,  where  the 
pupils  face  both  ends  of  the  room. 

Another  plan,  though  not  so  desirable,  is  to  have  the  pupils' 
chairs,  preferably  with  writing  arms  (Fig.  179),  compactly  arranged 
near  the  teacher's  desk  and  facing  it,  with  work  tables  back  of  them 


320         HOW  TO  EQUIP  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 

seated  with  small  chairs  without  writing  arms.  When  pupils  are 
engaged  in  laboratory  work  they  are  seated  at  the  work  tables, 
and  when  reciting,  in  the  chairs  near  the  teacher's  desk. 


Mill 


Fio.   ISO. — Plenty  of  table  and  work -shelf  surface  is  desirable,  as  is  also  a  good  glass-front 

cabinet  filled  with  supplies  for  laboratory.     For  better  style  of  tables  and  arrangement  of 

class,  see  text.    (S.  R.  S.,  U.  S.  D.  A.) 


Fio.   LSI. — Two  types  of  class-front  cabinets  designed  by  nn  agriculture  instructor.     The 

•liding-door   plan  was   adopted   after   experience  with   the  swinging   doors.     The  cups  were 

won  in  judging  by  the  school  pupils.     (\\.  V.  Longley.) 

As  the  best  teaching  procedure  in  secondary  schools  is  to  utilize 
during  the  class  period  any  "method"  or  combination  of  methods 
which  the  character  of  the  subject  matter  or  state  of  mind  of  pupil 
or  pupils  makes  advisable  instead  of  a  "lecture"  or  recitation  on 
Monday  and  a  "laboratory"  on  Wednesday  regardless  of  the  sub- 


FURNITURE 


327 


ject  sequence  of  pupils'  needs,  the  furniture  and  the;  room  arrange- 
ment  ought  to  provide  for  this  procedure  with  the  least  waste  of 
time  and  effort.  Both  of  the  above  plans  are  adapted  to  this 
procedure,  though  the  former  is  plainly  the  lx:tter.  The  most 
common  arrangement  fails  to  meet  these  requirements  (Figs.  170 
and  180). 

If  the  teacher  is  to  use  a  combination  of  methods,  he  must  have 
readily  accessible  those  supplies  for  which  then*  is  a  probability 
he  will  have  need  at  class  time.  For  this  purpose;,  near  his  desk, 


-•s  y 


Fie.   182. — A  cabinet  for  agriculture  roonis.    The  cupboard  top  is  free  from  the  ba, 
fitted  with  sliding  doors  having  ball-bearing  sheaves  and  track.     One  floor  is  lined 


<e.  It  is 
with  an 
1  catch, 
tomatie 
i  locked 
1  pulls 
should 
ise  with 
ild  have 
Hacked, 


Eagle  No.  2001  combination  lock;  the  other,  with  either  lock  or  a  common  ci  ilxiar 
The  drawers  have  projected  chamfered  fronts,  tight  bottoms,  and  are  looked  b  anai 
locking  device  controlled  by  the  two  middle  drawers  of  the  top  row,  which  are  n  tur 
by  combination  locks.  The  drawers  should  be  fitted  with  card  frames  or  ho  lcr«  a 
or  card-holder  pulls.  The  top  may  be  built  up  of  birch  or  some  soft  wood.  T!estri| 
be  doweled  and  glued,  with  grain  opposed.  The  top  should  be  attached  to  the  b; 
wood  buttons  and  screws  to  provide  for  expansion  and  contraction.  Top  of  baseshoi 
acid-proof  finish.  The  remainder  of  the  case  may  be  stained  ami  oiled,  or  stained,  six 
and  waxed.  (Ankeney  and  Field.) 

there  should  be  a  wall  cabinet  with  sliding  glass  doors  above  and 
various  sizes  of  drawers  (and  a  door  opening  to  shelves)  below 
(Figs.  181  and  182).  With  these  spaces  varied  in  size  he  can  have 
what  he  needs,  in  good  order  and  ready  for  use. 

In  schools  where  a  large  amount  of  time  is  expended  on  some- 
thing of  large  local  interest,  such  as  corn  in  the  corn-belt  regions, 
a  special  cabinet  built  to  receive  the  trays  upon  which  a  five  or 
ten  ear  sample  is  placed  may  be  provided.  The  trays  should  be 


328         HOW  TO  EQUIP  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 

adapted  to  the  size  of  the  pupils'  work  tables  and  the  cabinet  to 
the  trays.  The  cabinet  should  be  vermin-proof. 

In  addition  to  the  direct  teaching  done  by  the  instructor,  pupils 
learn  much  from  their  surroundings  in  moments  of  comparative 
leisure.  To  utilize  this,  as  well  as  to  have  available  for  regular 
class  use  many  helpful  articles,  wall  space  not  otherwise  used 
ought  to  be  occupied  by  display  cases  with  glass  doors  and  by 
pictures  and  charts.  These  should  be  changed  from  time  to  time 
to  conform  to  the  character  of  the  class  work.  Typical  and  supeiior 
specimens  of  grains  during  the  work  on  cereals;  grasses  and  hays 
during  the  study  of  forage  crops;  pictures  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep, 
swine,  and  poultry,  while  each  kind  of  animal  is  being  studied, 
will  increase  the  interest  and  comprehension  of  the  students.  The 
parts  of  such  cases  too  low  for  display  purposes  can  be  utilized 
for  the  storage  of  materials  frequently  needed  to  avoid  the  delay 
and  loss  of  time  consequent  upon  taking  them  to  and  from  the 
storage  room.  The  purchase  of  such  teaching  aids  and  the  cabinets, 
cases,  and  frames  to  contain  them  with  district  funds  is  as  defensible 
as  the  purchase  of  books  and  the  employment  of  teachers. 

Drawing  tables  for  work  in  farm  mechanics  and  farm  manage- 
ment, or  temporary  attachments  provided  for  the  regular  class- 
room work  tables,  should  be  supplied  unless  the  tables  of  some  other 
school  department  can  be  made  available  for  the  agriculture  work. 

If  the  agricultural  reference  books  are  to  be  organized  as  a 
departmental  library,  suitable  cases  should  be  installed  for  them 
and  for  bulletins,  and  racks  for  periodicals. 

A  portable  blackboard  of  wood  pulp  or  of  slated  cloth  is  a  great 
convenience  and  should  be  provided. 

APPARATUS 

The  apparatus  needed  for  teaching  the  various  branches  of 
agriculture  such  as  agronomy,  poultry,  and  others  is  mentioned  in 
the  chapters  of  this  book  devoted  to  those  subjects.  But  it  is  well 
to  call  attention  here  to  a  few  things  of  general  serviceability  in  the 
teaching  of  any  and  all  of  them  which  each  school  should  purchase. 

A  good  lantern  and  a  suitable  supply  of  slides  are  essential. 
No  high  school  should  attempt  to  teach  agriculture  without  them. 
There  are  five  or  six  desirable  types  of  lanterns  on  the  market 
adapted  to  the  use  of  electricity  and  of  gas  for  illuminants.  Defi- 
nite information  regarding  their  adaptability  to  different  sets  of 
conditions  can  usually  be  obtained  from  the  college  of  agriculture. 


STEREOSCOPE  329 

Sets  of  slides  to  illustrate  the  different  topics  can  often  be  bor- 
rowed  from  the  State  College  of  Agriculture  or  from  the  U.  8. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  or  may  be  purchased  from  supply 
houses.  They  may  l>e  borrowed  from  commercial  companies 
having  educational  departments.  The  head  of  tho  department  of 
agriculture  in  the  State  College  of  Agriculture  or  the  state  super- 
visor of  agriculture  can  give  the  names  and  addresses  of  such 
supply  houses. 

An  opaque  projector  to  throw  on  the  screen  pictures,  diagrams, 
drawings,  and  other  opaque  material  not  of  sufficient  general  use 
to  warrant  the  expense  of  making  into  slides  is  valuable  and  ought 
to  be  bought,  if  the  local  source  of  illumination  is  sufficiently  strong 
and  funds  are  available.2 

A  good  camera  ought  to  be  a  part  of  the  equipment  to  enable  the 
taking  of  local  pictures  that  have  great  educational  value  and 
cannot  be  made  available  for  future  use  except  in  the  form  of  lan- 
tern slides  or  opaque  projection.  The  expense  of  the  camera  and 
of  the  supplies  for  taking,  developing,  and  printing  those  pictures 
that  are  for  school  use  should  be  borne  by  the  school  district. 

Charts  on  muslin,  oilcloth,  or  heavy  paper  or  press  board  should 
be  supplied  at  district  expense  to  the  extent  needed  by  the  school 
for  its  class  work  and  for  the  community  extension  work  done  by 
the  school.2 

A  motion  picture  projection  machine2  can  be  afforded  by  some 
schools  and  is  found  to  be  of  great  value.  A  large  standard  machine 
may  be  installed  in  the  assembly  room  or  other  large  audience  room 
and  used  by  the  agriculture  classes  when  films  are  available.  Many 
of  the  national  livestock  registry  associations  of  the  different  breeds 
of  cattle,  hogs,  horses,  and  sheep  have  films  for  free  service.  These 
may  usually  be  obtained  from  the  secretary  of  the  association. 
Obtain  the  revised  addresses  of  livestock  associations  from  your 
state  supervisor  of  agriculture. 

There  are  several  small  portable  machines  using  non-inflam- 
mable films  which  can  be  used  in  any  school-room  without  a  booth. 
For  these  there  are  numbers  of  educational  films.  Such  a  machine 
may  serve  many  schools  of  a  district.  More  detailed  information 
on  the  foregoing  apparatus  may  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  Charts, 
Slides,  and  Films.2 

A  stereoscope  of  improved  model  with  well  selected  views  will 
add  greatly  to  the  teaching  efficiency.2 

2  See  Chapter  XVI  and  Appendix. 


330         HOW  TO  EQUIP  FOR  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 

Typical  specimens  of  grains  in  head  (Fig.  179)  and  in  seed, 
weeds,  and  weed  seeds  in  convenient  containers  may  usually  be 
purchased  from  the  State  College  of  Agriculture  or  the  school 
supply  houses. 

Pictures  of  plants,  animals,  machines,  buildings,  and  farm  equip- 
ment should  be  obtained  even  if  they  must  be  purchased.  Provide 
many  agricultural  placards. 

A  duplicator  such  as  a  rotating  mimeograph  or  a  jelly  pad  hec- 
tograph should  be  in  every  school.3  They  will  be  useful  in  pre- 
paring survey  topics,  preparing  special  score  cards  for  farms,  for 
projects,  for  surveys,  preparing  outlines,  programs,  reviews,  lesson 
plans,  and  lists  of  references. 

Other  Apparatus. — A  good  set  of  scales  is  so  necessary  at  all 
times  that  the  agriculture  department  should  be  supplied  independ- 
ent of  the  other  departments.  Many  other  supplies  and  some  appa- 
ratus can  be  used  coordinately  with  other  departments. 

In  addition  to  the  special  apparatus  mentioned  in  Chapters  V 
to  XII,  inclusive,  there  should  be  a  sufficient  supply  of  wide-mouth 
bottles  and  screw-top  bottles,  of  various  sizes;  glass  and  earthen- 
ware jars  and  crocks;  cups,  plates,  trays,  scoops;  and  wood  and 
metal  containers  of  various  capacities. 

Adapt  Equipment  to  Local  Use. — Not  every  school  can  afford  the 
space  and  equipment  just  described,  though  it  is  what  every  good 
school  of  average  size  should  have.  Each  teacher  must  study  his 
curriculum,  his  classes,  and  his  funds  and  come  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  ideal  equipment.  If  agriculture  is  to  be  introduced  into  the 
school  gradually,  he  may  provide  each  year  only  those  things  most 
essential  for  that  year's  work,  adding  other  necessities  as  other 
years  of  work  are  added.  When  all  the  most  urgently  needed 
features  have  been  obtained,  additional  desirable  ones  may 
be  added. 

Very  helpful  suggestions  for  equipment  will  be  found  in  Pro- 
fessor W.  G.  Hummel's  "Materials  and  Methods  in  High-school 
Agriculture"  (Macmillan)  and  Professor  A.  W.  Nolan's  "The 
Teaching  of  Agriculture"  (Houghton,  Mifflin). 

Every  piece  of  furniture  and  apparatus  should  have  a  definite 
place,  out  of  the  way  of  the  regular  class  work,  but  easily  obtained 
for  use,  and  should  be  kept  there,  clean  and  in  good  order.  Adminis- 
trative officers  should  see  that  no  more  equipment  and  apparatus 
are  supplied  a  teacher  than  he  is  willing  to  care  for  properly. 

3  See  Appendix  recipes. 


REFERENCES  331 

EXERCISES  AND  QUESTIONS 

1.  Draw  to  scale  a  plan  for  a  group  of  agriculture  rooms  adapted  to  a 
school  of  your  acquaintance  stating  briefly  the  demands  of  the  curriculum 
and  the  school. 

2.  Lay  out  to  scale  the  floor  plan  of  the  combined  class-room  and  lalx>ratory 
of  the  school  used  in  exercise  1,  showing  the  location  of  furniture,  apparatus, 
windows,  blackboards,  doors,  and  water,  gas,  and  light  conditions. 

3.  Make  to  scale  a  floor  plan  of  a  practical  school  greenhouse,  showing  its 
relation  to  the  high  school  building. 

4.  Prepare  a  card  index  or  other  list  of  the  various  livestock  and  registry 
associations  in  the  United  States  including  your  state  and  local  ones  with  the 
names  and  addresses  of  the  secretaries,  from  whom  valuable  pictures  and  printed 
matter  may  be  obtained. 

5.  Draw  to  scale  an  elevation  of  the  shelving  required  for  a  storage  r<x>m 
with  which  you  are  acquainted. 

6.  Draw  to  scale  a  seating  plan  for  a  certain  class  and  laboratory'  room 
which  you  know. 

7.  Enumerate  the  advantages  of  having  pupils  dp  their  class  and  labora- 
tory work  at  the  same  table;   also  of  having  all  pupils  face  the  front  of  the 
room  instead  of  having  pupils  facing  each  other.    The  disadvantages. 

8.  Make  a  rough  sketch  of  a  cabinet  for  holding  ear  corn  samples  to  have 
them  safe  and  convenient  for  study. 

9.  For  what  general  equipment  would  you  spend  your  first  &200?     ((Jive 
name  and  price  of  each  article.) 

REFERENCES 

Lists  of  equipment  of  the  kinds  mentioned  in  this  chapter  may  be  obtained 
from  the  following  sources  (see  also  sources  of  lists  in  Appendix) : 

Furniture,  fixtures,  and  apparatus  from  the  State  Supervisor  of  Voca- 
tional Agriculture;  the  State  College  of  Agriculture;  the  Agricultural  Instruc- 
tion Division,  States  Relation  Service,  U.  S.  D.  A.;  and  the  sch<x>l 
supply  houses. 

Specimens  of  plants  from  the  State  College  of  Agriculture;  the  V.  S.  D.  A. ; 
commercial  seed  houses;  Boards  of  Trade  that  deal  in  the  various  farm  crops; 
and  the  school  supply  houses. 

Pictures  of  animals  from  the  various  livestock  registry  associations. 

Pictures  (and  occasionally  small  models)  of  machines  from  the 
manufacturers. 

Miscellaneous  special  exhibits  of  manufactured  products  from  the  firms 
manufacturing  them  (obtain  list  from  the  Agricultural  Instruction  Division, 
States  Relation  Service,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture). 

Fanners'  Bui.  586,  Collection  and  Preservation  of  Plant  Materials. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
HOW  TO  TEACH  THROUGH  CHARTS,  SLIDES,  AND  FILMS 

Growing  Importance. — That  "seeing  is  believing"  has  long 
been  accepted  as  sound  psychology.  The  sense  of  sight  is  one  of 
the  two  major  senses  concerned  in  the  learning  process.  Its  value 
in  object  teaching  and  in  textbook  study  have  long  been  appreci- 
ated. Inventions  and  improvements  have  given  a  new  significance 
to  visual  instruction.  To  the  blackboard  and  the  map,  the  only 
generally  used  means  of  visual  instruction  of  the  generation  just 
past,  have  been  added  charts,  stereopticons  and  slides,  opaque 
projectors,  motion  picture  films,  stereographs,  and  other  means  of 
visual  instruction  for  groups.  All  of  these  are  especially  helpful 
in  teaching  agriculture,  particularly  when  real  objects  cannot  be 
present  for  class  use.  The  agriculture  teacher  who  is  not  prepared 
to  utilize  these  vital  aids  in  his  teaching  is  poorly  equipped  to  meet 
modern  demands  and  should  lose  no  time  in  fitting  himself  to  use 
them  with  skill  and  efficiency.  The  school  which  is  not  making 
provision  to  supply  its  agriculture  department  with  the  materials 
needed  for  carrying  on  this  type  of  teaching  is  handicapping  its 
pupils  in  their  efforts  to  obtain  the  best  in  education.  Charts  are 
so  easily  made,  pictures,  slides,  views,  and  the  machines  with  which 
to  project  them  are  so  numerous,  effective,  and  relatively  inexpen- 
sive that  there  is  little  reason  for  a  school  not  having  any  or  all  of 
them  for  use  especially  in  its  agriculture  classes.  Motion  picture 
projectors  are  expensive  and  film  service  both  quite  expensive  and 
poorly  organized  at  present;  but  as  the  enterprise  is  still  in  its 
infancy  and  undergoing  very  rapid  development,  schools  may  look 
for  motion  pictures  to  become  both  a  practical  and  a  relatively 
cheap  means  of  visual  instruction  in  the  near  future.  Both  teachers 
and  school  officers  should  not  only  be  ready  for  that  day  when  it 
arrives,  but  in  the  meantime  should  hasten  its  coming,  whenever 
funds  can  be  procured,  by  introducing  it  into  their  schools  in  the 
form  of  definite  visual  teaching. 

Blackboard. — Few  teachers  make  the  most  efficient  use  of  the 
blackboard.  Tables,  drawings,  diagrams,  outlines,  and  similar  rep- 
resentations for  temporary  use  placed  on  the  board  before  the 
pupils  assemble  may  mark  the  difference  between  a  superior  lesson 
332 


BLACKBOARD 


333 


and  one  that  is  only  mediocre.  Some  agriculture  and  rural  life 
stencils  may  be  obtained1  and  reproduced  upon  the  board.  During 
the  recitation  the  live  teacher  not  only  has  pupils  work  on  the 
board  but  uses  it  freely  as  a  means  of  illustrating  his  teachings. 
In  addition  to  the  permanent  blackboards  the  teacher  of  agricul- 
ture should  have  one  or  two  sliding  blackboards  at  the  front  of  the 
room  not  only  to  increase  the  amount  of  board  space  but  to  keep 


IT  TAKES   LESS   GRAIN 

2  LOTS-4  COWS    EACH-4    MO.-OH10 
PROFIT   PER   COW   PER  MO. 


GRAIN   RATION 


SILAGE   RATION 


S2.46 


5.86 


COST    OF    100    IBS    MILK 


GRAIN   RATION 


SILAGE  RATION 


SI.06 


.69 


Fia.   183. — This  arrangement  of  the  bar  craph  permits  the  economical  arrangement  of  expla- 
nations, data  in  figures,  and  relative  magnitudes.     (After  P.  G.  H olden.) 

obscured  till  needed  certain  material  placed  there  before  the  reci- 
tation period.  At  least  one  (preferably  more)  slated  cloth  black- 
board, mounted  on  wooden  chart  sticks  or  rollers,  should  be 
provided  so  that  whatever  is  desired  can  be  placed  on  it  outside 
of  the  class-room  and  displayed  at  recitation  time  without  loss  of 
time.  Both  sides  of  the  cloth  being  slated,  a  large  amount  of  such 
work  is  made  easily  transportable  from  place  to  place. 

1  P.   G.   Holden,   Director  Extension   Department,   Harvester   Building, 
Chicago. 


334      TEACHING  THROUGH  CHARTS,  SLIDES,  AND  FILMS 

Charts. — The  chart  is  the  most  universally  adaptable  and  uni- 
formly effective  and  the  most  economical  means  yet  discovered 
for  concentrating  the  attention  of  a  group  of  persons  upon  the  thing 
to  be  taught  (Fig.  183).  It  can  be  used  in  the  class-room,  in  the 
laboratory,  on  the  land  laboratory,  in  a  public  assembly  room,  on 
the  street,  in  a  railroad  car,  in  the  field,  at  a  picnic,  a  fair,  a  church 
service,  a  convention,  or  any  other  gathering,  large  or  small,  in 
natural  light  or  artificial  light,  day  or  night,  in  sun  or  in  shade. 
It  requires  neither  special  illumination  nor  inconvenient  accessories. 
Made  of  proper  materials,  it  may  be  destroyed  after  one  use  without 
great  loss  or  may  be  used  a  thousand  times  with  no  other  than  the 
initial  expense  (Fig.  184).  As  the  textbook  is  one  of  the  best 
friends  of  the  learner,  so  the  chart  should  become  one  of  the  l)est 
friends  of  the  teacher.  It  has  special  value  to  the  teacher  of 
agriculture  because  of  being  adapted  not  only  to  his  class  work 
in  the  school  but  also  to  his  extension  work  in  the  communit\*. 
Every  teacher  should  know  not  only  how  to  use  charts  but  also 
how  to  make  them,  because  much  of  the  material  he  wishes  placed 
upon  them  is  local,  or  recent  and  changing.  Not  only  should 
teachers  make  charts,  but  it  is  well  to  have  students  in  high  schools 
make  them  occasionally  for  use  in  reporting  their  projects  or  topics 
at  community  meetings,  graduating  exercises,  or  other  public  places. 

Equipment  and  Materials  for  Making  Charts. — A  chart  board 
of  the  size  of  the  largest  chart  to  be  made  is  the  first  essential. 
School  charts  are  sometimes  made  four  feet  square,  or  even  3x4 
feet;  but  as  charts  for  public  use  should  not  be  less  than  five  feet 
square,  a  chart  board  of  this  size  (or  preferably  six  feet  square)  is 
desirable.  It  should  be  smooth,  straight,  and  without  elevations 
or  depressions  that  will  prevent  an  even  impression  being  made 
upon  the  chart  materials  by  the  working  tools.  The  board  should 
be  of  some  wood  soft  enough  to  receive  thumb  tacks  and  not  in- 
clined to  warp.  The  pieces  of  which  it  is  made  should  be  matched 
and  cleats  so  attached  to  the  back  as  to  provide  for  shrinking  and 
swelling.  If  the  school  is  willing  to  go  to  the  additional  expense, 
a  "glued  up"  board  can  be  purchased  that  will  neither  shrink  nor 
warp.  A  relatively  inexpensive  chart  board  may  be  produced  by 
making  a  rough  foundation  of  common  light  wood  and  facing  it 
with  a  piece  of  pulp  board  of  superior  quality. 

The  chart  board  should  be  located  where  there  is  good  light  on 
it  and  where  shadows  from  the  worker  do  not  interfere  with  the 
work.  A  heavy  straight-edge  about  two  and  one-half  to  three 


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336      TEACHING  THROUGH  CHARTS,  SLIDES,  AND  FILMS 

inches  wide  and  as  long  as  the  chart  board  is  wide  should  be  so 
mounted  as  to  be  held  in  place  as  a  guide  to  the  letters  used 
in  stamping  or  the  crayon,  or  brush,  or  other  instrument  used  in 


FIQ.  185. — This  shows  the  chart  board  and  frame  described  in  the  text,  with  a  young  lady 

of  medium  height  or  less  working  at  it.     If  economy  needs  to  be  practiced,  sacrifice  on  the 

frame  and  attachments  and  not  on  the  board  itself. 

making  the  chart.  If  marked  off  into  inches,  it  will  be  helpful  in 
side  spacing.  This  may  rest  on  pegs  placed  in  numbered  peg  holes 
that  are  along  the  right  and  left  edges  of  the  board. 

The  chart  board  should  be  mounted  so  it  will  be  firm  and  steady. 
If  it  is  to  remain  in  one  place,  it  may  be  mounted  on  a  simple  frame- 
work which  is  fastened  to  the  wall.  If  the  board  is  given  a  slight 


RUBBER  TYPE 


337 


slant  backward  at  the  top,  it  is  better  for  work  (Fig.  185).  If  the 
chart  board  is  hinged  to  the  wall,  with  loose-pin  hinges,  the  bottom 
may  be  drawn  out  from  the  wall  to  any  angle  desired. 

If  money  is  available  and  a  movable  and  adjustable  frame  and 
board  are  desirable,  a  braced  framework  rolling  on  heavy  casters 
can  be  made  and  the  board  mounted  so  as  to  Ix;  raised  and  lowered 
by  counter-balancing  weights,  operating  cords  passing  over  pulleys 
located  at  the  top,  or  better,  a  chain  and  crank  with  ratchet  and 


FIG.   186. — This  is  the  style  of  letter  to  use  in  making  charts.     Free  from  nil  ex*ra  lines  and 

uniform  in  outline,  they  are  most  easily  distinguished.    This  is  the  three-inch  size.    Other 

practical  sizes  for  chart  work  are  2J-£,  2,  and    1  inch. 

pawl.  The  straight-edge  is  then  made  to  slide  up  and  down  on 
heavy  rods  upon  which  it  can  be  fixed  in  position  with  thumb  set- 
screws.2  Provision  is  also  made  for  mounting  a  roll  of  chart  cloth 
so  it  can  be  drawn  over  the  board  and  the  chart  not  cut  from  the 
roll  until  it  is  completed. 

Rubber  Type. — Each  school  should  be  equipped  with  two  or 
three  fonts  of  single-letter  rubber  stamps.  These  should  Ix?  of 
plain  simple  face  (Fig.  186)  and  should  have  an  elastic  back,  either 
Buchs  cushioned  back  or  sponge  cushioned  back,  so  they  will 

2  Such  an  apparatus  with  a  "glued  up"  board  is  in  use  by  the  Division  of 
Agricultural  Education,  University  of  Minnesota.     (Fig.  185.) 
22 


338     TEACHING  THROUGH  CHARTS,  SLIDES,  AND  FILMS 

adjust  themselves  readily  to  the  slightest  inequality  of  surface  or 
of  pressure.3  The  large  font  should  have  a  vertical  measurement 
of  three  inches.  Other  useful  sizes  for  charts  are  two  inches  and 
two  and  one-half  inches.  If  a  small  font  for  explanations  and  other 
data,  visible  only  at  close  range  and  hence  not  confusing  to  the 
audience,  is  desired,  one  of  the  same  style  of  letter  measuring  one- 
half  inch  can  be  obtained. 

Ink,  Crayon,  and  Fixative. — A  superior  quality  of  black  chart 
ink  (rubber  stamp  or  mimeograph)  and  large  ink  pads  to  hold 
it  will  be  needed.  Since  even  with  the  greatest  care  there  will  be 
occasionally  a  portion  of  a  letter  which  is  not  well  inked,  and  since 
attempts  at  making  a  second  impression  causes  blurring  and  untidy 
work,  a  good  quality  of  heavy  black  wax  crayon  should  be  at  hand 
for  retouching  the  letters.  It  will  be  needed  also  for  drawing  lines, 
filling  in  graphs  and  other  drawings.  If  colors  are  to  be  used  (and 
they  should  seldom  be  used  and  then  sparingly),  crayons  will  be 
needed  for  that  purpose. 

If  freehand  work  is  to  be  attempted,  suitable  brushes,  pens,  and 
pencils  may  be  provided.  A  good  form  of  chart  ink  or  paint,  for 
use  with  a  small  pointed  brush,  is  made  by  mixing  a  little  varnish 
with  turpentine  and  lampblack.  This  can  be  made  of  any  con- 
sistency to  suit,  and  works  well  on  sign  cloth.  Never  use  oil  with 
it,  as  this  causes  the  paint  to  spread  in  the  grain  of  the  cloth. 

It  is  advisable  to  use  a  fixative  on  such  work  as  is  likely  to 
"crock"  or  blur.  Special  caution  is  needed  in  this  regard  with 
crayon  work.  Such  fixatives  are  to  be  used  in  a  sprayer.  They 
may  be  obtained  from  drawing-supply  houses  or  made  at  the  school, 
one  part  shellac  to  three  or  four  parts  of  wood  alcohol.  Pastel 
crayons  are  good  for  color  work. 

Chart  Paper  and  Cloth. — Charts  to  be  used  only  a  few  times 
may  be  most  economically  made  upon  any  tough  colored  paper 
and,  if  for  a  small  group  of  persons,  can  be  made  sufficiently  plain 
and  in  a  short  time  by  the  freehand  use  of  a  good  black  wax  crayon. 
This  is  much  more  economical  of  time  and  materials  than  to  use 
the  rubber  stamps  on  cloth. 

Charts  to  be  used  many  times  or  before  large  audiences,  or  to 
be  packed  and  unpacked  frequently,  should  be  made  on  a  very 
superior  quality  of  bleached  muslin,  about  the  quality  of  Pequot 

3  Such  alphabets  of  rubber  type  can  be  obtained  from  Salisbury-Schultz 
Co.,  Chicago;  and  wood  cuts  of  the  same  from  Curtis-Johnson  Printing  Co., 
Chicago. 


CHART  STAND 


339 


2.  PIECES  OF  LUMBER. 
1  X4"x2o"  FORM 
THE     BASE 


AGRICULTURAL 
LECTURE  CHARTS 


FIGHT 


STAY    FOE   CHART  HBADiTICK  TO  RfcVT  IN 


—     APIUt. 
Of    SKCCT 


UPRIGHT 


BENT    AT 
RIG  XT  AJtUJU 

1"  raon  TOP 


BEVELED    6(iACE 

I"x4"x  a' FT 


bKACE    IN    POSITION 


Fiu.    1ST.  —This  chart  stand  ran  l>c  made  *n  the  school  shop  and  will  serve  well  unless  inu.-h 
traveling  is  to  be  done  with  the  charts.     (I.  II.  Co.) 


340     TEACHING  THROUGH  CHARTS,  SLIDES,  AND  FILMS 

or  Golden  State  brand,  54  to  60  inches  wide,  by  the  use  of  the  rubber 
stamp  letters  described. 

Regular  sign  cloth,  36  inches  or  more  in  width,  may  often  be 
found  at  dry  goods  stores.  It  is  not  as  durable  as  muslin  but  makes 
attractive  temporary  charts.  For  the  most  durable  charts,  white 
oilcloth  is  sometimes  used  but  is  very  heavy.  Such  charts  should 
be  rolled  and  never  folded  for  carrying  to  meetings. 

Chart  Stands  and  Cases. — If  a  number  of  charts  are  to  be  as- 
sembled for  use,  or  if  one  wishes  to  be  prepared  with  a  portable 
support  and  not  depend  upon  conditions  he  may  find  in  his  exten- 
sion work,  an  adjustable  metal  chart  stand  should  be  procured. 
If  a  simple  stand  is  wanted  for  use  in  the  school-room,  it  may  be 
made  by  the  pupils  (Fig.  187).  If  it  is  desired  to  use  the  chart 
with  others,  they  may  be  tacked  at  their  tops  to  a  plain  wood  bar 
as  long  as  the  charts  are  wide  and  about  one  inch  thick  and  two 
and  a  half  inches  wide.  If  the  charts  are  to  be  carried  or  shipped, 
a  carrying  case  of  strong  canvas  or  carriage  cloth  held  by  strong 
straps  and  buckles  and  provided  with  a  stout  handle  should  be 
purchased  or  made.4 

Suggestions  for  Chart  Making. — Amateur  chart  makers  usually 
fail  of  full  effectiveness  because  of  a  few  errors  common  to  nearly 
all  beginners.  To  aid  in  avoiding  them  these  suggestions  are  made. 

Plan  with  great  care  the  subject  matter  to  be  charted.  Be  sure 
it  is  exactly  what  you  want.  Boil  it  down  to  an  irreducible  mini- 
mum by  discarding  every  word  that  can  be  spared.  Express  the 
idea  in  words  that  will  be  clear  and  forceful  to  those  for  whom  it 
is  prepared.  Be  sure  it  is  not  capable  of  misinterpretation.  See 
that  big  ideas  stand  out  and  that  unimportant  details  are  omitted 
(Fig.  188).  Use  striking  terms,  but  do  not  sacrifice  soundness  for 
sensation.  Make  chart  contents  as  applicable  as  possible  to  local 
conditions.  Use  local  data  whenever  possible;  it  is  more  interesting 
and  more  convincing  than  is  that  from  points  far  away.  If  graphs 
are  used,  see  that  they  are  simple  in  form,  such  as  the  bar  or  the  line 
whenever  possible.  See  that  bases  of  comparisons  are  sound.  The 
operator  should  lay  off  the  lines  carefully  and  count  the  words  and 
letters  as  a  sign  painter  would  do.  Have  the  copy  carefully  printed 
on  the  typewriter  or  lettered  on  paper  in  much  the  same  style  that 
it  is  to  appear  on  the  chart.  If  symbolism  is  to  be  attempted, 
remember  that  it  must  be  simple,  direct,  and  readily  apparent  to 

4  Such  stands  and  cases  are  now  in  use  by  the  extension  departments 
of  many  State  Colleges  of  Agriculture. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  CHART  MAKING  341 

meet  with  effective  popular  comprehension.      Use  the   cartoon 
sparingly;  it  is  a  two-edged  sword. 

See  that  the  chart  cloth  or  paper  is  placed  on  the  board  with 
its  edges  parallel  to  those  of  the  Ixmrd.  If  the  straight-edge  guide 
is  kept  parallel  to  the  top  of  the  board  and  a  T-square  or  triangle 
is  used  for  vertical  lines,  drawings  (Fig.  185),  diagrams,  and  straight 
line  graphs  may  be  easily  and  accurately  produced.  Measuring 

EDUCATION 


FOR  THE  DUTIES 
OF  LIFE 

FIG.    188. — A  few  significant  words  well    placed   on    a   chart    in  clear,  larpe  type  are  more 
effective  than  many  words  much  crowded.      (After  P.  G.   Hidden.) 

tapes  or  calibrations  along  the  vertical  edges  of  the  board  will 
aid  in  accurate  and  rapid  measuring. 

When  placing  on  the  chart,  see  that  letters,  figures  and  all  char- 
acters are  large,  plain  faced,  few  to  the  chart,  and  far  apart  (Fig.  189). 
Violation  of  this  is  almost  universal,  even  by  college  professors. 
Most  home-made  charts  use  letters  and  figures  that  are  difficult 
to  read  because  of  being  too  small  and  of  having  crooks  and  turns 
and  tails  and  pothooks  to  the  confusion  of  sight.  Plain  Gothic 
type  is  the  best.  As  much  is  sometimes  crowded  upon  one  chart  as 
ought  to  be  spread  out  upon  throe  or  four.  Note  some  in  figure  KM). 


342     TEACHING  THROUGH  CHARTS,  SLIDES,  AND  FILMS 

How  can  effective  teaching  be  expected  from  such  an  abuse  of  a 
valuable  teaching  aid? 

Three  fundamental  facts  or  principles  or  directions  expressed 


Fio.    1S9. — These  charts  have  the  good  qualities  of  usinx  rectangular  surfaces  (though  bars 
would  have  been  more  effective),  large,  simple  type,  and  no  crowding.    (S.  R.  S.,  U.  S.  D.  A.) 


Fio.  100. — Agricultural  charts  nearly  cover  the  walls  in  this  class-room.     (H.  I,.  Joslyn.  X.  C.) 

in  three  to  five  words  each  on  a  chart  five  or  six  feet  square  by  means 
of  letters  three  inches  high  will  make  a  lasting  impression,  while  a 
large  mass  of  details  on  the  same  subject  crowded  together  in  small 
type  will  be  wholly  ineffective.  The  chart  is  to  present  only  the 


SUGGESTIONS  FOIl  CHART  MAKING  343 

outstanding  features,  the  sjxuiker  or  accompanying  literature  i* 
to  furnish  the  details. 

Leave  good  margins  at  the  top  and  the  bottom.    Do  not  crowd 
the  right  and  left  margins.     Have  plenty  of  space  between  the 

THE  PRACTICAL  EDUCATION 

TRAINS  THE  WHOLE  CHILD 
HEAD 

TO  THINK 
TO  PLAN 
TO  REASON 

HEART 

TO  BE  KIND 

TO  BE  TRUE 

TO  BE  SYMPATHETIC 

HANDS 

TO  BE  USEFUL 
TO  BE  HELPFUL 
TO  BE  SKILFUL 

HEALTH 

TO  RESIST  DISEASE 

TO  ENJOY  LIFE 

TO  MAKE   EFFICIENT 

FIG.    191. — See  that  the  subject  matter  of  the  chart  is  well  analyzed,  tersely  stated,  and 
effectively  arranged.     (After  I'.  C.  llnlclcn.) 

lines  (Fig.  191).  Have  lines  straight,  letters  erect  and  projx'rly 
spaced.  If  graphs  are  used,  see  that  relative  magnitudes  are  prop- 
erly proportioned.  Remember  that  columns  or  bars  of  equal 
widths  and  relative  lengths,  or  parallelograms  of  equal  bases  and 
relative  heights,  are  the  most  easily  comprehended  by  those  little 
used  to  graphic  representation. 

Avoid  three-dimension  magnitudes  and    complicated    figures. 


344     TEACHING  THROUGH  CHARTS,  SLIDES,  AND  FILMS 

Use  simple,  strong,  outstanding  lines  for  drawings.  If  colors  or 
cross  hatching  are  used  for  different  quantities,  make  them  easily 
distinguishable.  Make  the  general  execution  of  the  printing  and 
illustrating  such  as  would  make  a  first-class  job  printer  proud. 

Freehand  drawing,  if  well  done,  may  add  to  the  usefulness  of  a 
chart  but  may  add  materially  to  the  labor  cost  (Figs.  192  and  193). 


QUACK  GRASS 


FIG.   192. — Freehand  drawing  is  easily  executed  on  a  chart  by  throwing  the  image  on  the 
screen  from  a  lantern  slide.     (After  P.  G.  H olden.) 

Such  drawing  may  be  done  more  successfully  and  economically  by 
projecting  on  the  chart  cloth  as  on  a  screen  the  desired  figure,  using  a 
lantern  and  a  slide  or  opaque  projector  and  then  making  the  drawing 
from  the  illumination  on  the  chart.  If  a  slide  be  used,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  turn  the  light  off  for  short  periods  to  avoid  breaking  it. 
Stencils  may  be  obtained  commercially  from  which  charts  can 
be  readily  made,  especially  if  the  chart  material  be  paper.5  "Pay- 

6  P.  G.  Holden,  Director  Agricultural  Extension  Department,  Harvester 
Building,  Chicago,  111. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  CHART  MAKING 


345 


zant,"  "Feed  Ball"  and  "Spoonbill"  pens  and  a  good  quality  of 
round  or  flat  showcard  brushes  are  helpful  additions  to  the  equip- 
ment if  much  work  is  to  1x5  done  on  paper. 

When  printing  and  drawing  are  finished,  go  over  the  whole  with 


Body  Shape  of  the 

General    Purpose 

Breeds 


Block  Body  Shape 

of  the  Heavy  Meat 

Breeds 


Fio.    193. — Figures  for  agricultural  charts  may  often  be  copied  from  books,  bulletins  and 
catalogues.     These  three  are  from  Lewis's  Poultry  Keeping. 

a  good  quality  of  black  wax  crayon  and  retouch  any  weak  spots. 
Then  go  over  crayon  work  with  the  fixative,  spraying  it  from  a 
small  hand  sprayer  similar  to  a  perfume  or  medicine  atomizer. 
Errors  may  be  obscured  by  sewing  a  piece  of  cloth  over  them 


346      TEACHING  THROUGH  CHARTS,  SLIDES,  AND  FILMS 

or  by  applying  China  white  or  Chemnitz  white,  or  by  applying 
tailors'  mending  tissue. 

Using  the  Charts. — Charts  frequently  may  be  made  to  do 
teaching  service  without  any  person  being  present  to  talk  about 
them.  Charts  used  for  this  purpose  must  be  quite  complete  and 
self-explanatory  and  should  be  so  displayed  that  they  are  easily 


Fia.   194. — Collect  or  make  pictures  showing  successive  stops  in  various  farm  and  garden 

operations,  such  as  the  six  steps  here  shown  for  hotbed  making.     Use  the  sets  of  pictures  on 

placards  for  your  school  room.     (Kentucky  Station.) 

visible  to  those  for  whom  they  are  intended.  In  using  charts 
so  arrange  them  that  the  class  or  audience  sees  only  the  chart 
upon  which  the  teaching  is  concentrated  at  the  time.  Do  not  turn 
to  a  new  chart  until  you  have  prepared  your  hearers  for  what  it 
teaches,  because  as  soon  as  it  is  exposed  their  attention  will  con- 
centrate upon  it  to  the  loss  of  what  you  may  be  saying  if  you  are 
talking  upon  a  different  topic.  Place  the  charts  where  they  are 
easily  seen  by  all ;  care  must  be  taken  that  those  in  the  rear  are 
able  to  see  the  bottom  of  the  chart.  The  presence  of  charts  should 


MAPS  347 

not  cause  the  speaker  to  omit  the  use  of  real  objects.  The  Ix-st  of 
charts  are  no  substitute  for  the  real  thing.  Have  actual  objects 
present  when  possible.  They  and  the  charts  will  l>e  mutually 
complementary.  As  on  any  good  class  exercise,  permit  sensible, 
pertinent  questions  aimed  at  obtaining  information,  but  do  not 
allow  your  main  purpose,  which  is  to  teach,  to  Ix;  thwarted  by 
indiscriminate  or  voluminous  questioning  or  by  debate  and  wrang- 
ling. If  there  be  charts  in  the  set  that  are  not  applicable  or  that 
you  do  not  wish  to  use  because  of  lack  of  time,  it  is  sometimes  well 
to  show  them  with  a  passing  word  of  explanation  rather  than  to 
appear  to  be  keeping  them  obscured.  Sometimes  curiosity  regard- 
ing the  mysterious  unshown  chart  will  prevent  concentration  ujM>n 
that  which  you  desire  them  to  learn. 

Placards. — There  is  much  use  for  placards  in  teaching  agricul- 
ture. Cards  of  various  sizes  and  qualities  are  used  in  making  them. 
If  pictures  are  to  be  printed  or  mounted  on  the  cards,  a  good  color 
for  the  card  is  gray.  The  cards  should  be  heavy  enough  not  to 
warp  badly  when  pictures  are  pasted  on  them  (Figs.  194  and  195). 
If  a  number  of  placards  are  to  be  made  for  use  in  the  school-room 
and  laboratory,  it  is  well  to  have  them  uniform  in  size.  A  standard 
size  of  cardboard  for  this  purjxise  is  22  by  28  inches. 

Printed  placards  on  many  subjects  may  be  obtained  from  the 
various  offices  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Teacher's 
should  obtain  many  of  these  and  also  ask  their  own  state  college 
for  placards  that  are  useful  in  teaching. 

Students  and  teachers  should  make  placards  on  many  agri- 
cultural subjects.  Illustrate  them  with  pictures  from  farm  journals, 
bulletins,  and  catalogues.  Have  the  lettering  neat  and  plain,  as 
suggested  for  the  cloth  charts. 

Such  placards  may  be  stored  flat  on  a  large  shelf  in  a  store-room 
when  not  in  use.  They  may  be  easily  provided  with  eyelets  for 
hanging  on  the  wall.  When  desired,  such  cards  may  be  suspended 
in  series  or  tiers,  one  card  being  tied  to  the  bottom  of  the  card 
above  it.  They  are  thus  easily  folded  together  when  taken  down 
for  storage. 

Maps. — The  regular  political  and  physical  maps  belonging  to 
the  school  should  be  available  for  use  in  agriculture.  In  addition 
to  these,  outline  maps  should  be  used  for  many  purposes.  An  out- 
line map  of  the  United  States,  of  the  state,  and  if  possible  of  the 
region,  painted  upon  slated  cloth,  should  be  a  part  of  the  regular 
agriculture  equipment.  Areas  devoted  to  certain  types  of  fanning, 


348     TEACHING  THROUGH  CHAKTS,  SLIDES,  AND  FILMS 


Kio.    195. — A  live  teacher  will  obtain  a  good   supply  of  instructive  pictures  and  display 

them  advantageously.     Kxeept  on  special  occasions,  they  should  he  well  distributed  around 

the  room.     (VV.  C.  Christensen  and  S.  R.  S.,  U.  S.  D.  A.) 

certain  crops  or  animals,  and  the  areas  in  which  certain  conditions 
of  soil  or  marketing  prevail,  or  certain  pests  or  diseases  are  preva- 


LANTERNS  349 

lent,  and  countless  other  types  of  information  can  be  illustrated 
on  such  blackboard  maps.  Outline  paper  maps  of  sufficient  size 
for  group  use  may  be  mounted  upon  pulp  Ixmrd  and  colored  tacks 
used  for  the  location  of  specified  items  of  interest. 

Small  outline  maps  for  the  use  of  individual  pupils  may  be 
used  to  record  in  graphic  form  some  of  the  most  interesting  agri- 
cultural truths  which  will  be  tatter  understood  and  more  success- 
fully remembered  because  of  the  pupil  having  thus  worked  out 
the  truth  on  a  geographic  basis.  All  available  maps  of  local,  state, 
and  regional  agriculture,  such  as  those  relating  to  soils,  animals, 
crops,  and  rural  surveys,  should  be  obtained.  Enlargements  of 
important  census  maps  relating  to  agricultural  topics  of  local 
interest  may  be  worth  making.  This  would  not  be  difficult  if  a 
slide  were  first  made  and  this  projected  as  suggested  in  the  making 
of  charts.  If  there  is  a  soil  survey  map  of  the  state,  it  should  be  at 
hand  at  all  times. 

Lanterns. — In  the  chapter  on  equipment  the  owning  of  stere- 
opticons  and  slides  was  advocated.  There  are  a  half  dozen  good 
makes  of  stereopticon  lanterns  on  the  market  each  with  its  strong 
points.6  If  the  school  does  not  own  one,  the  teacher  of  agriculture 
should  learn  what  sources  of  illumination  are  available  not  only 
in  the  school  building  but  at  the  many  points  in  the  community 
where  he  will  probably  want  to  use  the  lantern,  such  as  rural 
schools,  farmers'  club  halls,  stock  pavilions,  rural  churches,  fair 
buildings,  and  similar  places.  He  can  then  choose  the  lantern  best 
adapted  to  his  needs  in  that  regard.  He  must  also  know  the  ap- 
proximate focal  distance  it  will  be  possible  to  obtain  in  these  various 
places  and  see  that  the  lenses  in  the  machine  to  be  bought  can  be 
adapted  to  those  distances  without  too  small  or  too  large  an  image 
or  too  slight  definition.  If  he  decides  upon  a  machine  that  uses 
electricity,  he  must  know  whether  his  available  current  is  direct 
or  alternating  and  of  what  phase  and  voltage.  If  the  places  in 
which  he  expects  to  use  it  are  not  of  uniform  current,  he  must  know 
whether  he  can  obtain  a  rheostat  or  transforming  device  that  will 
permit  his  using  the  same  lantern  on  all  circuits.  Some  lanterns 
can  be  furnished  with  an  equipment  for  electricity  and  also  one 
for  gas.  He  will  then  need  to  decide  whether  his  source  of  illumina- 
tion, if  electric,  is  to  be  of  the  arc  or  the  incandescent  type.  The 
possibility  of  using  a  magneto  light  or  storage  light  from  an  auto- 
mobile, or  of  using  a  portable  generator,  should  ulso  l>e  considered. 

6  To  obtain  list,  see  Appendix,  p.  416. 


350     TEACHING  THROUGH  CHARTS,  SLIDES,   AND  FILMS 

So  great  have  been  the  improvements  in  the  incandescent 
bulbs  that  for  ordinary  use  bulbs  sufficiently  powerful  can  be  ob- 
tained, thus  avoiding  the  many  annoyances,  such  as  noise  and 
irregularity  of  feeding,  which  frequently  mark  the  arc  light.  These 
bulbs  may  be  obtained  in  6,  12,  32,  90,  110,  and  220  voltages. 
They  need  no  resistance  or  controlling  device  and  may  be  used 
interchangeably  on  alternating  or  direct  current. 

Ease  of  portability  and  ease,  simplicity,  and  rapidity  of  setting 
up  are  important  features,  especially  if  much  extension  work  is  to 
be  done.  Range,  accuracy,  and  ease  of  adjustment  are  other  fea- 
tures that  need  attention.  For  many  years  the  slide  carriers 
were  practically  uniform  in  all  machines.  Recently  some  have 
added  greatly  improved  slide  handlers  which  when  perfected 
promise  much  more  convenient  and  effective  operation.  Such 
an  improvement  should  be  given  due  consideration  in  the 
selection  of  a  machine,  but  before  they  are  purchased  care 
should  be  taken  that  such  devices  have  been  sufficiently  per- 
fected to  be  practical. 

The  Screen. — For  the  agriculture  room  a  coated  screen  of  suf- 
ficient size  and  of  as  good  material  as  the  funds  available  permit 
should  be  hung  upon  a  spring  roller  at  the  front  of  the  room.  This 
spring  roller  and  screen  should  be  boxed  in  to  keep  them  free 
from  dust  and  dirt.  Although  a  very  good  image  can  be  produced 
upon  a  blank  light-colored  wall,  it  is  well  to  have  a  portable  screen 
of  good  muslin,  or  better  sateen,  to  take  to  places  where  nothing 
else  is  available.  It  may  be  necessary  to  have  some  ropes  and 
simple  pulleys  to  make  the  use  of  this  more  effective  in  some 
places.  Wrinkles  and  creases  in  this  cloth  should  be  avoided  as 
far  as  possible. 

Slides. — The  lantern  slide  has  made  a  place  for  itself  not  only  in 
entertaining  but  also  in  teaching.  With  the  simplifying  of  stereop- 
ticon  lanterns  so  any  teacher  or  careful  pupil  of  high  school  age 
or  even  younger  can  operate  them,  with  improvements  in  illumi- 
nants  and  their  accessibility,  and  with  the  great  increase  in  the 
number  and  quality  of  slides  adapted  to  educational  uses,  the 
lantern  has  become  almost  universal  in  high  schools  and  even  in 
elementary  schools.  Like  charts,  they  are  especially  adapted  to 
group  teaching,  which  is  the  almost  universal  system  in  use  in 
this  country.  The  teacher  of  agriculture  can  utilize  them  to  very 
great  advantage,  and  the  supply  of  agriculture  slides  is  rapidly 
on  the  increase. 


TAKING  PICTURES  FOR  SLIDKS  351 

Obtaining  Slides. — Commercial  dealers  in  slides  are  numerous.7 
The  Forest  Service  and  the  States  Relations  Service  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  Bureau  of  Education  of  the 
United  States,  the  Agricultural  Education  or  Agricultural  Exten- 
sion Departments  of  the  various  State  Agricultural  Colleges,  and 
numerous  commercial  organizations  have  free  slide  service.  Many 
private  firms  have  special  sets  for  loan  or  sale.  Many  of  the  com- 
mercial slide  manufacturers  will  make  to  order  any  slides  desired 
from  negatives  or  photographs  furnished  them. 

In  addition  to  all  these  sources  of  supply  many  teachers  make 
their  own  slides.  With  all  of  these  opportunities,  every  agriculture 
teacher  should  find  it  possible  to  have  sets  of  slides  suitable  for 
use  in  his  classes.  While  the  loaning  and  renting  facilities  available 
should  be  utilized  to  the  best  advantage,  every  agriculture  depart- 
ment should  gradually  assemble  by  purchase  sujx'rior  slides  cover- 
ing the  subjects  most  essential  in  his  school  work  and  community 
service.  These  slides  should  represent  the  most  fundamental  and 
important  features  of  agricultural  work  and  should  be  the  l>est 
obtainable.  To  avoid  burdening  his  slide  cabinet  with  second-rate 
or  irrelevant  slides,  he  should  purchase  with  the  privilege  of  return- 
ing any  not  desired.  By  keeping  a  list  of  subjects  which  he  desires 
to  add  to  his  supply  he  can  select  with  care  and  see  that  the  money 
spent  is  wisely  distributed  over  the  different  topics  taught.  Be- 
sides the  small  choice  selection  of  slides  owned  by  the  school,  much 
use  should  be  made  of  the  constantly  enlarging  opportunities  l>eing 
offered  for  obtaining  those  offered  for  loan  or  hire. 

Taking  Pictures  for  Slides. — Some  of  the  slides  should  be  of 
local  subjects  or  data  which  the  teacher  provides.  If  he  has  a 
camera  and  can  operate  it  well,  he  should  take  these  pictures  him- 
self. If  not,  he  may  engage  the  services  of  a  local  photographer. 
In  either  case  he  should  see  that  the  comix)sition  of  the  picture 
(what  it  contains  and  how  the  contents  are  arranged)  is  such  that 
the  teaching  value  for  the  purpose  desired  is  fully  brought  out. 
Unnecessary  objects  that  would  distract  the  attention  should  be 
omitted  and  the  others  so  placed  and  jx)sed  as  to  make  plain  the 
things  desired.  If  relative  magnitudes  are  to  be  made  clear,  some 
object  whose  dimensions  are  commonly  known  should  be  so  placed 
as  to  make  comparison  easy  and  correct.  Backgrounds  should  In- 
chosen  that  will  bring  out  in  strong  relief  the  contents  of  the  pic- 
ture. Careful  study  must  be  made  of  lights  and  shadows  if  dear 

7  Set-  ApjHMidix. 


352     TEACHING  THROUGH  CHARTS,  SLIDES,  AND  FILMS 

and  truthful  effects  are  to  be  achieved.  Especially  in  the  use  of 
small  cameras  with  limited  focal  adjustment  care  must  be  taken 
to  avoid  perspective  distortion.  Particularly  in  photographing 
animals,  efforts  must  be  made  to  avoid  this  distortion.  Informality 
and  naturalness,  especially  where  processes  are  shown  or  groups 
depicted  (Figs.  196  and  197),  give  the  results  greater  teaching  value. 
It  is  well  if  the  agriculture  teacher  is  able  to  develop  his  nega- 
tives and  print  his  pictures.  But  with  the  multitude  of  other  duties 
required  of  him,  in  most  cases  after  having  seen  that  the  negative 
is  properly  made  he  may  better  have  the  developing  and  printing 


Fio.  196. — Xew  Hampshire  bovs  finishing  a  bridge  graft  on  the  trunk  of  an  injured  fruit 
tree.  In  taking  pictures  for  school  use  or  for  lantern  slides  the  students  should  be  giving 
attention  to  their  work  as  in  the  left  view — not  looking  at  the  camera  as  in  the  other  view. 

(R.  A.  Mooney.) 

done  by  a  regular  photographer,  if  one  is  available.  They  will  cost 
only  a  few  cents  each.  These  can  be  matted,  covered,  and  bound 
by  the  instructor  or  students  at  the  school.  In  case  the  photo- 
graphs are  so  large  as  to  require  reducing  to  the  lantern  slide  size, 
indicate  on  each  photograph,  by  marks  on  the  margin,  the  part 
which  you  wish  to  include  in  the  slide.  Data,  pictures,  diagrams, 
and  similar  materials  found  in  books,  bulletins  or  charts  and  maps 
which  it  is  desirable  to  use  in  slide  form  may  be  photographed 
and  thus  made  available. 

Teaching  Pupils  to  Take  Pictures. — With  the  presence  of  a 
camera  in  so  many  homes  it  may  be  well  to  instruct  the  pupils  of 
the  agriculture  classes  in  the  fundamentals  of  proper  picture  taking 
especially  as  it  relates  to  obtaining  satisfactory  farm  views  (Fig. 


TEACHING  PUPILS  TO  TAKE  PICTURES 


353 


198).  A  competitive  exhibit  of  pictures  composed  and  taken  by 
the  members  of  the  class,  with  awards  by  competent  judges,  will 
add  zest  to  their  endeavors.  In  the  judging,  the  instructional 
value  of  the  picture  should  be  given  consideration  as  well  as  its 
artistic  merits.  The  use  of  some  of  the  best  pictures  in  the  agri- 
cultural journals  ami  in  the  local  newspaper,  with  proper  credit 
to  the  pupil  and  the  school,  will  not  only  increase  the  interest  in 


Fio.    197. — It  is  well  to  make  slides  showing  the  steps  in  doing  things,  as  in  treating  hogs  for 

cholera.     Four  steps  in  a  demonstration  of  the  inoculation  of  pigs  to  prevent  cholera.     1,  the 

antiseptics;  2,  the  serum  and  virus;  3,  the  syringe  and  hypodermic  needle;  4,  injections  into 

the  pig.     (R.  V.  Morrison.) 

the  picture-taking  work  of  the  school,  but  also  in  the  agricultural 
work  and  in  the  local  agriculture.  The  growing  use  of  photographs 
in  advertising  farm  products  and  in  illustrating  agricultural  litera- 
ture will  justify  spending  a  little  time  on  instructing  the  pupils  in 
the  simplest  and  most  essential  feature  of  picture  taking.  Many 
of  the  pictures  taken  by  the  pupils  will  make  satisfactory  slides 
and  will  not  only  save  the  time  of  the  teacher  of  agriculture  but 
will  supply  views  of  local  agriculture  that  he  would  be  unable  to 
obtain  if  he  were  to  depend  upon  taking  them  himself.  Pamphlets 
23 


354     TEACHING  THROUGH  CHARTS,  SLIDES,  AND  FILMS 

upon  photography  should  be  in  the  library,  especially  if  the  pupils 
are  to  be  given  instruction  in  farm  photography. 

Making  Slides. — To  be  able  to  make  slides  from  his  own  neg- 
atives or  photographs  is  a  desirable  capability  for  the  agriculture 
teacher  to  possess,  but  to  use  his  time  in  doing  so  when  it  can  be 


FIG.    198. — Take  pictures  of  severnl  steps  in  all  projr 
school  to  show  development,  or  make  lantern  slides  of  son 


Vrrange  these  on  placards  in  the 
f  the  best.  (G.  It.  Hansom,  Okla.) 


used  to  better  advantage  in  some  other  way  is  undesirable.  To 
see  that  pictures  are  properly  taken  and  the  slides  properly  used 
when  made  will  be  a  far  better  use  of  his  skill  as  a  teacher.  The 
district  money  will  be  most  wisely  spent  if  paid  to  regular  com- 
mercial slide  makers  for  making  slides  and  to  the  agriculture 
instructor  for  devoting  himself  to  his  many  responsibilities  as  a 
teacher  and  a  community  counselor.  However,  if  the  school  is 
equipped  for  it,  the  teacher  may  occasionally  make  a  few  slides 


OPAQUE  PROJECTION  PICTURES 


3.55 


in  an  emergency  when  lack  of  time  will  not  permit  him  to  obtain 
them  through  commercial  channels.  Detailed  instructions  for 
making  slides  may  be  obtained  from  library  sources."  A  sheet 
of  gelatine  on  which  desirable  data  have  l>een  written  or  typed 
placed  between  glass  plates;  a  piece;  of  ground  glass  upon  which 
the  data  have  been  written  with  ink;  plain  glass  treated  with  a 
one-to-twenty  solution  of  Canada  balsam  in  xylene  and  written 
on  with  ink — all  furnish  means 
for  the  teacher  to  prepare  slides 
without  the  usual  photographic 
processes.9 

Improvements  are  rapidly 
being  made  in  slides  to  reduce 
the  weight  and  decrease  the 
breakage.  The  library  should 
be  a  subscriber  to  a  good 
magazine  so  the  agriculture 
department  can  keep  informed 
of  such  improvements  and  see 
that  the  school  avails  itself 
of  them.10 

Opaque  Projection  Pictures. 
— Any  school  provided  with  a 
good  opaque  projector  and 
sufficient  light  to  use  it  well, 
should  select  large  numbers  of 
pictures  of  suitable  size  for  use 
with  the  machine.  These  should 
be  mounted  on  small  cards. 
Usually  postcards  and  pictures 
cut  from  bulletins,  magazines, 
and  catalogues  will  be  found 
useful  for  this  purpose.  Those  on  light  paper  may  Ixi  mounted 
on  thin  cardboards  of  uniform  size  to  suit  filing  cabinets.  They 
may  be  arranged  as  suggested  for  lantern  slides. 

8  See  "  Lantern  Slides — How  to  Make  Them,"  Eastman  Kodak  Co. ,  Roches- 
ter, N.  Y.,  and  brief  article  taken  therefrom  in  Educational  Film  Magazine, 
Vol.  I,  Xo.  5,  May,  1919,  and  Vol.  II,  Xos.  1  and  2,  July  and  August,  1919. 
See  also  Appendix. 

9  See  circular  on  "Use  of  Illustrative  Material  in  the  Teaching  of  Agri- 
culture," States  Relation  Service,  U.  S.  D.  A.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

10  For  list,  see  References,  end  of  this  chapter. 


Fro.    199. — Revolving   lantern    slide   transpar- 
ency.    Six  faces,  7  slides    high,    2   slides  wide; 
top  of    one    side    removed   to  show  structure. 
Improved  by  a  light  hanging  inside. 
(Ceo.   A.   Dean,   Kans.) 


356     TEACHING  THROUGH  CHARTS,  SLIDES,  AND  FILMS 

Stereographs. — The  stereoscope  and  the  more  effective  stereo- 
graphs with  their  binocular  arrangement  for  still  pictures  are 
valuable  for  individual  use  when  suitable  subjects  are  obtainable, 
but  are  not  well  adapted  to  group  instruction  during  the  class 
meeting  unless  there  are  enough  instruments  and  views  to  supply 
the  entire  class,  and  even  then  the  distribution  and  collection  is 
time  consuming  and  distractive  of  attention.  For  use  during  the 
study  period  they  have  a  distinct  value. 

Moving  Pictures. — The  use  of  the  moving  picture  as  a  means  of 
teaching  is  rapidly  gaining  ground.  As  a  means  of  entertainment 
it  has  already  achieved  a  success  that  is  nothing  short  of  marvelous, 
but  its  progress  as  a  means  of  actual  school-room  education  has  been 
less  rapid  and  less  satisfactory.  In  that  field  it  is  still  struggling 
with  some  obstacles,  but  its  possibilities  are  so  great  that  there  is  no 
question  about  these  obstacles  being  removed  in  due  time.  The 
expense  of  the  projecting  machines  is  being  reduced  by  the  manu- 
facturing of  smaller  and  less  costly  models.  The  expense  of  films  is 
being  lessened  by  more  economical  methods  of  manufacture.  The 
lack  of  suitable  films  is  being  slowly  overcome  by  the  cooperation  of 
teachers  and  producers  in  the  making  of  films  that  are  actually  and 
not  just  ostensibly  educational.  The  inefficiency  of  educational 
film  service  is  being  overcome  by  the  development  of  cooperation 
among  schools,  colleges,  and  commercial  film  organizations. 

In  bringing  about  these  changes,  teachers  in  schools  and  colleges 
must  take  an  active  part,  if  the  pupils  are  to  receive  the  benefits 
to  which  they  are  entitled,  from  this  highly  potential  source  of 
aid  to  education.  No  longer  must  the  educational  film  be  acci- 
dental and  fragmentary.  The  content  of  the  curriculum  must  be 
organized  into  units  capable  of  being  filmed,  these  units  must  be 
arranged  into  pedagogic  sequences,  and  the  filming  must  be  done 
with  due  regard  to  the  psychology  of  the  learning  processes. 
America,  which  has  produced  the  best  textbooks  in  the  world,  must 
now  produce  the  best  educational  films  in  the  world.  The  general 
public  demand,  through  the  movie  theater,  will  cause  commercial 
firms  to  supply  the  fiction  film  as  the  same  public  demand  has  pro- 
duced the  fiction  book,  but  the  purposive  efforts  of  teachers  will  be 
as  necessary  in  the  production  of  the  text  film  as  they  have  been  in 
the  perfecting  of  the  textbook.  Agriculture,  dealing  as  it  does  with 
processes  of  applying  science  to  the  art  of  farming,  furnishes  an 
opportunity  for  using  the  moving  picture  to  the  greatest  advantage. 

When  suitable  films  are  obtainable  through  an  efficient  service 


THE  MOVING  PICTURE  PROJECTOR 


357 


at  a  reasonable  expense  the  moving  picture  will  be  a  valuable  aid 
in  agricultural  teaching.  With  the  darkened  room  every  obstacle 
to  the  concentration  of  attention  is  removed  and  the  constant 
motion  serves  to  keep  the  attention  from  wandering.  Its  vivid 
portrayal  especially  of  processes  and  operations  impossible  in  still 
projection  or  illustration  adds  to  its  teaching  value.  Showing 
actual  conditions  is  a  great  saving  of  time  over  describing  them,  as 
would  be  necessary  in  talking  or  reading.  The  use  of  the  moving 
picture  will  not  supplant  textbooks,  libraries,  laboratories,  and 


Fia.   200. — Suitable  copy  for  school-room  chart  of  dairy  cow.     (After  M.  .1.  Abbey.) 

teachers  but  will  improve  upon  the  quality  of  their  work  in  some 
features  and  will  partly  free  them  for  better  attention  to  those 
other  features  wherein  the  moving  picture  is  less  efficient. 

The  Moving  Picture  Projector. — The  machine  should  be  bought 
with  school  funds  as  is  any  other  item  of  equipment  for  the  class- 
room, the  laboratory,  or  the  library.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  paying 
for  it  through  admission  fees  is  permissible,  but  that  forces  the 
use  of  the  machine,  to  some  extent  at  least,  as  a  mere  entertainer 
when  it  ought  to  be  recognized  as  a  regular  teaching  apparatus 
with  entertainment  as  a  possible  incident,  if  it  is  to  play  its  proper 
part  in  the  class-room.  Some  firms  arrange  to  rent  machines  to 
schools,  but  that  is  a  makeshift  which  the  school  authorities  would 
not  think  of  resorting  to  with  blackboards,  desks,  or  seats.  Many 


358     TEACHING  THROUGH  CHARTS,  SLIDES,  AND  FILMS 

schools  are  equipping  with  projectors  as  a  regular  part  of  their 
apparatus,  apparently  considering  them  to  be  as  necessary  as  maps, 
globes,  and  library  books. 

In  choosing  the  machine  attention  must  be  paid  to  whether 
it  is  to  be  the  standard  theater  type  or  the  portable  type,  the  source 
and  character  of  electric  current,  and  the  distance  through  which  it 
is  to  project.  Most  portable  machines  are  intended  to  operate 
from  a  common  electric  light  socket,  and  to  project  short  distances 
using  a  Mazda  incandescent  lamp  of  about  250  to  400  watts.  If 
a  600- watt  light  be  used,  the  projection  distance  can  be  increased. 
Higher  power  Mazda  lamps  are  made,  but  they  require  a  stronger 
current.  For  the  greater  projection  distances  the  arc  lamp  is 
required.  If  the  machine  is  not  to  be  moved  from  place  to  place, 
a  permanently  installed  professional  projector  is  more  satisfactory. 
Until  such  time  as  standard  films  are  made  of  non-inflammable 
materials  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  such  a  machine  placed  in  a 
fireproof  booth,  constructed  to  meet  the  insurance  regulations  and 
local  legal  requirements.  This  booth  should  be  kept  clear  of 
unnecessary  articles,  especially  those  that  are  combustible,  be 
painted  black,  and  have  all  its  openings  so  arranged  that  they  close 
automatically  if  fire  starts  in  the  booth. 

For  portable  use  in  places  where  there  is  an  ordinary  electric 
lighting  system  there  are  several  machines  of  suitcase  style  that 
are  complete  and  convenient.  Where  no  current  is  available  it 
can  be  provided  by  fixing  a  small  electric  lighting  outfit  upon  a 
small  truck  or  automobile.  By  this  means  motion  pictures  can 
be  shown  in  a  country  school  house  or  any  other  place  even  though 
no  electric  current  is  regularly  installed  there. 

Some  of  the  agricultural  colleges  are  instituting  courses  in  visual 
instruction  through  which  prospective  teachers  are  prepared,  among 
other  things,  to  operate  stereopticons,  opaque  projectors,  moving 
picture  machines  and  other  projection  apparatus.  Those  who  have 
not  had  the  advantages  of  such  instruction  can  obtain  the  funda- 
mentals necessary  by  attending  a  short  course  at  some  central  point 
or  through  the  assistance  of  a  local  operator.  It  will  be  well  to  have 
one  of  the  two  or  three  good  reference  books  that  are  on  the  market. 

Obtaining  and  Using  Films. — Films  may  be  obtained  by  rental 
from  the  educational  film  exchanges,  by  loan  from  colleges  of  agri- 
culture and  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  In 
some  states  "  a  state  cooperative  film  service  is  maintained.  Many 

11  E.g.,  North  Carolina. 


USING  THE  FILM 


.359 


manufacturing  firms  loan  films  illustrating  their  processes.12  Some 
of  the  livestock  registry  associations  have  films  of  their  breeds 
which  they  loan  to  schools  and  colleges.13 

In  using  the  film  the  teacher  should  emphasize  the  teaching  pro- 
cesses. Pupils  should  know  what  the  film  is  intended  to  teach.  An 
assignment  should  be  made  upon  which  the  pupils  prepare  by  using 
texts  and  references.  Questions  may  be  propounded  to  raise  in 
their  minds  the  problems  which  the  film  is  to  aid  them  in  solving. 
The  film  and  an  abstract  of  its  teachings  should  be  familiar  to  the 
teacher  before  he  makes  the  assignment  to  the  pupils.  The  sul>- 
titles  of  the  film  should  raise  further  questions  in  the  minds  of  the 
pupils  which  the  films  may  answer.  Explanations  through  dia- 
grammatic illustrations  and  proper  labels  should  be  used  in  the 
film  to  aid  the  pupils  to  a  clear  understanding.  Much  effective 


Fia.   201. — Drawings  such  as  this  may  be  mafic  upon  charts  and  thus  be  available  for  use 
many  times.   (School  and  Home  Gardening.) 

teaching  can  be  done  in  agriculture  by  the  use  of  films.  Land 
clearing,  the  operation  of  farm  machines,  types  and  breeds  of 
animals,  construction  work,  and  especially  the  various  drill  oper- 
ations to  obtain  farm  skill  offer  unsurpassed  opportunities  for  the 
successful  use  of  the  moving  picture  in  agricultural  teaching.  By 
means  of  special  equipment,  which  makes  possible  slow  motion 
pictures,  the  motions  in  the  various  farm  skills  may  be  filmed  and 
when  projected  slowly  upon  the  screen  make  it  possible  to  analyze 
them  into  their  constituent  movements,  which  may  then  be 
synthesized  in  actual  practice  and  an  improvement  be  made 
in  the  prevailing  process  if  that  be  not  the  best.  Spading,  hoe- 
ing, raking,  milking,  grooming,  harnessing,  hitching,  training, 
drenching,  shoeing,  caponizing,  irrigating,  tilling,  stacking,  spray- 
ing, adjusting  machinery,  and  numberless  other  farm  skills  can 

12  See  Appendix. 

13  For  list  of  associations,  send  to  your  state  supervisor  of  ngriculturc  for 
revised  addresses.     (Also  see  Appendix.' 


360     TEACHING  THROUGH  CHARTS,  SLIDES,  AND  FILMS 

thus  be  taught  properly   and   after   proper    drill   supplant    less 
effective  methods. 

Pupils  should  be  held  as  responsible  afterwards  for  active  and 
accurate  thinking  during  this  teaching  process  as  they  would  be  in 
any  other.  The  illusion  that  because  learning  through  the  film  and 
screen  is  easy  it  is  to  be  a  passive  procedure  on  the  part  of  the  pupil 


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Fio.   202.  —  Make  a  chart  of  the  ground-floor  plan  of  a  good  machine  shed,  giving  room  fo 
winter  repair  work  and  painting.     A  shed  for  the  storing  of  machinery  is  a  valuable  asset  or 

every  farm.     When  properly  cared  for  and  well  housed  the  life  of  machinery  is  considerably 
lengthened.     It  is  said  that  more  farm  machinery  rusts  out  than  wears  out.     Proper  storage 

prevents  rusting  out. 

must  be  dispelled  early  if  the  greatest  value  is  to  be  obtained  from 
the  lantern  and  the  moving  picture  as  educational  adjuncts. 

Filing  and  Storing.— Visual  instruction  materials  should  be  very 
carefully  filed  and  stored  if  they  are  to  be  ready  when  wanted  and 
are  to  be  preserved  for  long  use.  A  record  should  be  kept  of  all 
charts,  maps,  photographs,  views,  slides,  and  films  based  upon  the 
library  filing  system  in  use  in  that  school.  Card  indexes  properly 
numbered  with  the  same  numbers  on  the  articles  should  be  em- 


FILING  AND  STORING 


361 


ployed.  Charts  and  large  maps  should  be  neatly  rolled  or  sus- 
pended at  full  length  in  a  space  where  they  will  be  free  from  dirt 
and  injury.  Small  maps,  photographs  and  views  should  be  in 
vertical  filing  cases  or  in  pastelxmrd  boxes  according  to  the  system 
in  use  locally.  These  should  be  properly  numl>ered  and  labeled 
so  they  can  be  found  readily. 

Films  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place  slightly  moist,  and  if  inflam- 
mable, in  metal  containers  in  a  fireproof  storage  space. 

Slides  may  be  kept  in  a  regular  slide  cabinet  with  drawers  con- 


Fio.   203. — Plan  of  a  simple  hot  and  cold  water  system  where  the  supply  is  to  be  pumped 
as  needed.     Make  a  chart  like  this  for  your  shop-room.     (After  Cornell  Countryman.) 

taining  separate  slots  for  individual  slides.  If  the  slides  are  given 
a  file  number  corresponding  to  the  system  in  use,  this  numl)er  can 
be  placed  on  the  side  of  the  drawer  opposite  the  proper  slide  space. 
Each  drawer  can  show  on  the  outside  the  number  limits  of  the 
slides  therein.  Or  if  they  are  arranged  in  topical  groups,  as  orchard- 
ing, gardening,  etc.,  these  topics  may  be  on  the  drawer  lal>els. 
Slides  may  also  be  filed  in  a  regular  vertical  filing  drawer  with  a 
suitable  follow-up  block  and  a  reference  system  by  means  of  which 
any  slide  may  be  found  easily. 


362     TEACHING  THROUGH  CHARTS,  SLIDES,  AND  FILMS 

Storing  Slides  in  Visible  Form. — Where  many  slides  are  owned 
by  one  school  they  may  be  arranged  in  large  panels  which  slide 
into  and  out  of  a  cabinet  and  which  are  quickly  visible  to  the  eye. 
These  panels  may  contain  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  slides  each  and 
are  quickly  drawn  out  to  be  examined  by  any  one  planning  a  lesson 
or  lecture.  The  cabinet  containing  these  panels  should  be  near  a 
window  so  that  the  operator  may  look  through^hem  toward  the  light. 
A  translucent  screen  may  be  used,  if  desired,  between  the  light  and 
the  picture,  thus  enabling  the  operator  to  see  the  details'more  clearly, 
perhaps  recognizing  the  slide  more  quickly.  The  arrangement  of 
slides  by  the  panel  system  may  be  either  topical  or  numerical. 

A  revolving  slide  holder,  such  as  that  shown  in  figure  199,  is 
useful  at  all  tunes  in  showing  slides  to  students  and  visitors. 
From  it  slides  can  be  quickly  selected  for  use  in  lectures. 

EXERCISES  AND  QUESTIONS 

1.  Find  the  price  of  slated  cloth  blackboards  of  different  sizes  and  where 
they  can  be  obtained.    What  size  is  best  adapted  to  your  school? 

2.  Where  in  your  vicinity  can  "glued  up"  chart  boards  be  obtained? 
What  will  one  cost  that  is  5  x  5  feet? 

3.  Draw  a  sketch  of  a  frame  that  would  support  a  chart  board  firmly 
against  the  wall;  an  easel  that  would  support  it;  a  movable  frame  on  rollers. 

4.  Prepare  the  exact  wording  and  arrangement  you  would  use  for  a  chart 
on  improving  the  dairy  herd  or  a  similar  topic  of  your  own  selection. 

5.  Discuss  charts  you  can  obtain  as  to  wording,  arrangement,  spacing, 
style  of  type,  graphs,  forcefulness,  clearness,  and  general  appearance.     Sug- 
gest improvements. 

6.  What  are  the  objections  to  three-dimension  graphs?     To  comparison 
by  circles?    Pyramids? 

7.  Make  a  chart  on  each  of  the  subjects  shown  in  Figs.  200,  201,  202, 
and  203. 

8.  Why  not  expose  your  most  important  chart  to  the  audience  while  it 
is  assembling? 

9.  In  talking  from  charts  how  would  you  dispose  of  irrelevant  questions? 
Impertinent  ones? 

10.  Compare  different  samples  of  colored  paper  obtainable  as  to  their 
values  for  chart  use. 

11.  Find  where  slated  cloth  outline  maps  can  be  obtained  most  economic- 
ally; also  small  paper  outline  maps  of  the  United  States  and  of  your  state. 

12.  Compare  five  different  types  of  lanterns  as  to  (a)  illuminants;  (6) 
portability;  (c)  convenience  of  setting  up;  (d)  ease  of  operation;  (c)  adjusta- 
bility; (/)  slide  shifting;  (0)  quality  of  illumination  (when  possible);  (h)  lenses. 

13.  Make  a  list  of  practical,  portable  stereopticons  for  the  high  school 
department  of  agriculture,  with  types  of  illuminants  and  cost  of  each. 

14.  Prepare  a  list  of  the  names  and  addresses  of  dealers  in  stereopticon 
slides. 

15.  Make  a  list  of  stereoscopic  views  practicable  to  have  as  a  part  of  the 
agriculture  equipment. 

16.  Make  a  list  of  subjects  of  twenty  slides  you  would  like  to  have  to 
illustrate  a  certain  topic. chosen  by  yourself. 


REFERENCES  363 

17.  State  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  glass  plates  for  taking 
agricultural  photographs;  of  films. 

18.  Make  a  list  of  motion  picture  machines  using  standard  films;  of  those 
using  special  non-inflammable  films  and  the  names  and  addresses  of  dealers. 

19.  Obtain  agricultural  pictures  and  criticize  them  from  the  standi>oint 
of  teaching  value. 

20.  Select  five  pictures,  tables,  or  diagrams  found  in  b<x>ks  or  bulletins 
you  would  recommend  to  be  made  into  slide's.    Give  reasons. 

21.  Does  your  local  paper  use  many  cuts  of  local  agricultural  subject*? 
Could  it  use  more  to  advantage?    If  so,  find  out  the  reason  for  not  doing  so. 

22.  Describe  the    latest  improvements  in  slides  to   reduce   weight  and 
breakage. 

23.  Practice  writing  on  a  ground-glass  slide  until  you  can  obtain  a  neat, 
clear  result. 

24.  Practice  with  the  gelatine  sheet  in  the  same  manner. 

25.  Try  the  same  upon  a  balsam-treated  plain  glass. 

26.  Obtain  the  names  and  addresses  of  educational  film  exchanges. 

27.  Prepare  a  list  of  five  educational  films  adapted  to  the  class  in  agricul- 
ture and  state  when  you  would  introduce  each  into  the  class  work. 

28.  What  are  the  best  types  of  incandescent  lamps  now  available  for  use 
in  lanterns?    In  motion  projectors? 

29.  What  current  is  available  in  your  school?    What  lanterns  and  motion 
projectors  can  be  adapted  to  it?    How? 

30.  Are  there  any  individual  electric  lighting  plants  in  residences  near 
your  school?    What  kind?    How  much  of  such  a  plant  would  need  to  lx>  trans- 
ported to  a  place  not  having  electric  lights  to  operate  a  lantern  or  motion 
projector? 

31.  Does  the  Agricultural  College  of  your  state  maintain  a  slide-loaning 
service?    A  film-loaning  service? 

32.  Wrhat  are  some  of  the  weaknesses  of  teaching  by  slides?    By  moving 
pictures? 

33.  Make  a  sketch  of  a  cabinet  suitable  for  holding  medium-size  maps, 
charts,  and  blue  prints.     What  would  it  cost  if  made  locally? 

34.  Are  the  photographs  in  your  school  SG  filed  that  they  are  well  pre- 
served and  quickly  obtainable?    Do  you  think  the  system  could  be  improved? 
If  so,  how? 

35.  Write  to  your  State  Agricultural  College  and  see  if  plans  have  been 
made  or  are  soon  to  be  made  for  a  state  or  inter-state  exchange  of  lantern 
slides  or  films.    When  an  exchange  is  started,  join  it  if  you  can. 

REFERENCES 

"The  Moving  Picture  Age." 

"The  Educational  Film  Magazine." 

"Visual  Education  Magazine,"  Chicago. 

"A,  B,  C  of  Exhibit  Planning,"  Evartz  G.  and  Mary  Swain  Routzahn. 

COLEMAN,  G.  A.:  M.  P.  in  Educ.  Jr.  EC.  Entom.  10  :  371,  373,  June,  1917. 

"Use  of   Illustrative   Material   in   Teaching  Agriculture   in   Rural   Schools," 

U.  S.  D.  A.  Year  Book,  1905. 

"Motion  Pictures  an  Aid  to  Education,"  Vol.  1,  V.  S.  Bur.  Ed.,  1910,  587-597. 
American  Assn.  of  Col.  and  Exp.  Stations.  Bui.  ().  E.  S.  49,  1897. 
Classification  Scheme   for  Pictures  and  Lantern  Slides,  X.  Y.  State  Dept.  of 

Education. 

"Use  of  Illustrative  Material  in  Teaching  of  Agriculture,"  U.  S.  D.  A. 
"List  of  Films  and  Their  Uses,"  U.  S.  D.  A. 
LEAKE:   "Means  and  Methods  in  Agricultural  Education,"  Houghton-Mifflin. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
HOW  TO  ORGANIZE  AN  AGRICULTURAL  LIBRARY 

Importance  of  the  Library. — The  last  quarter  of  a  century  has 
seen  discovered  and  made  available  more  scientific  truth  about 
agriculture  than  was  ever  known  in  all  the  preceding  ages  of  man. 
No  person  can  hope  to  get  the  most  out  of  farming  who  is  not 
acquainted  with  the  best  and  most  usable  of  this  body  of  scientific 
agricultural  truth.  The  teaching  of  agriculture  contemplates  not 
only  that  what  is  taught  shall  be  practically  sound  but  also  that 
it  shall  be  scientifically  correct.  While  vocational  agriculture  must 
see  that  the  pupil  follows  the  best  farm  practices  in  his  practical 
work,  that  is  not  enough.  It  must  give  him  an  understanding  of 
the  scientific  bases  for  those  practices  and  also  give  such  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  fundamental  truths  and  principles  of  scientific  agri- 
culture and  their  relationships  as  to  enable  him  to  adapt  them  to 
varying  conditions. 

In  the  project  system  of  teaching,  every  step  in  his  practical 
work  must  be  carefully  determined  after  most  thorough  and 
thoughtful  consideration  has  been  given  not  only  to  the  practical 
conditions  which  surround  him  but  also  to  what  the  best  scientific 
authorities  say  about  that  particular  type  of  agricultural  enter- 
prise and  those  particular  limiting  conditions.  These  authorities 
must  be  found  in  the  agricultural  library  of  the  school. 

Even  if  each  pupil  owns  a  copy  of  the  text  used  in  the  class 
work  there  will  be  need  for  the  school  library  to  furnish  a  large 
supply  of  other  reference  materials,  because  even  the  best  text 
gives  all  too  meager  a  treatment  of  any  subject  to  be  sufficient 
for  practical  purposes.  Books,  bulletins,  papers,  periodicals,  special 
documents,  reports,  year  books,  circulars,  catalogues,  maps,  charts, 
pictures,  and  many  other  forms  of  publications  are  needed  to 
enable  the  pupil  to  obtain  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  subject 
and  to  prepare  him  for  successfully  practicing  the  farming  opera- 
tion involved. 

What  to  Select. — There  is  almost  no  limit  to  the  supply  of  good 
material  available  for  the  agricultural  library.  The  two  limiting 
factors  are  the  demand  of  the  curriculum  to  be  taught  and  the 
supply  of  funds  with  which  to  purchase.  With  these  in  mind  the 
teacher  should  discriminate  carefully,  in  order  that  the  money 
364 


BOOKS  365 

available  each  year  will  add  to  the  library  the  reference  most  valu- 
able for  the  work  to  be  done  by  that  school.  He  must  first  go 
carefully  through  his  curriculum  and  determine  upon  what  phases 
of  agriculture  which  are  to  be  taught  the  current  year  additional 
reference  material  will  be  needed.  He  should  then  study  carefully 
the  available  references  for  those  particular  phases,  arrange  them 
in  the  order  of  their  serviceability  and  procure  as  many  of  them 
as  the  funds  properly  allotted  to  the  different  phases  will  permit. 
He  should  endeavor  to  obtain  a  few  superior  references  for  each 
important  topic  to  be  studied  rather  than  many  for  one  topic 
and  none  for  others. 

The  largest  amount  of  reference  materials  should  be  that  which 
is  adapted  to  the  capabilities  of  the  majority  of  the  pupils  to  be 
taught.  In  addition  to  this  there  should  be  a  small  amount 
especially  adapted  to  the  teacher's  use  even  though  some  were 
too  technical  for  the  pupils  to  understand.  It  is  also  advisable 
to  have  a  small  amount  dealing  in  a  popular  and  less  technical 
manner  with  some  of  the  affairs  of  the  farm  to  use  in  arousing  the 
interest  of  some  of  the  less  advanced  farmers. 

While  most  of  the  agricultural  library  material  should  be  de- 
voted to  the  study  of  farming  it  ought  to  contain  a  fair  amount  of 
choice  material  dealing  with  life  on  the  farm.  "The  Fat  of  the 
Land,"  "From  Sunup  to  Sundown,"  "Adventures  in  Content- 
ment," "John,  the  Book  Farmer,"  "The  Fairview  Idea,"  "The 
Brown  Mouse,"  "Hidden  Treasure,"  "Three  Acres  and  Liberty," 
"Ten  Acres  Enough,"  "  George  Washington,  Farmer,"  "The  Soil," 
and  similar  stories  of  farm  life  and  activities  ordinarily  placed  on 
the  fiction  shelves  may  well  be  placed  in  the  agriculture  library, 
where  they  will  attract  the  attention  of  the  pupils  studying 
agriculture,  and  their  plans  and  procedure  be  subjected  to  class 
consideration  and  perhaps  discussion. 

In  like  manner  some  of  the  finest  farm  literature  should  be 
found  in  the  agriculture  library.  The  volumes  of  James  Whit- 
comb  Riley,  the  poems  of  Will  Carleton,  Liberty  Hyde  Bailey, 
Bryan,  Sam  Walter  Foss,  and  others,  and  the  several  anthologies 
of  farm  prose  and  poetry  are  good  examples.  If  agriculture  is  to 
do  what  it  ought  for  the  individual  and  for  society,  not  only  profit 
but  also  pleasure  must  be  found  in  farming. 

Books. — In  addition  to  the  one  or  more  textbooks  chosen  for 
class  use  (and  where  they  are  purchased  by  the  school  there  should 
be  sets  of  several  different  texts)  there  should  be  a  number  of  well- 


366        HOW  TO  ORGANIZE  AN  AGRICULTTRAL  LIBRARY 

selected  books  to  which  pupils  may  refer  for  more  ample  treatment 
of  a  subject  than  may  be  found  in  the  text.  Unless  the  school 
buys  sets  of  different  texts  for  class  use,  a  few  of  the  reference  books 
may  be  of  about  the  grade  of  the  text  used  by  the  pupil.  Several 
copies  of  each  of  the  best  should  be  available. 

Others  should  be  good  college  texts  and  other  books  devoted 
to  special  features  of  agriculture.  In  addition  to  these  there  should 
be  one  or  more  good  cyclopedias,  such  as  Bailey's  Cyclopedia 
of  Agriculture. 

Bulletins. — Schools  should  supply  for  the  use  of  agriculture 
classes  the  farmers'  bulletins  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  those  of  the  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  Experi- 


FIG.  20 J. — The  supervised  study  of  the  week's  farm  journals,  Easley  High  School,  South 
Carolina.     (!.!.  M.  Banknight.) 

ment  Station,  and  such  additional  desirable  ones  as  can  be  obtained 
from  other  states  whose  agricultural  practices  are  applicable  to 
the  local  school  region.  Schools  should  also  supply  suitable  cases 
in  which  to  file  all  bulletins,  properly  labeled,  and  shelves  or 
drawers  in  which  the  files  may  be  placed  in  an  orderly  manner 
easily  accessible  for  daily  use. 

Periodicals. — Schools  should  subscribe  for  a  few  of  the  best 
agricultural  periodicals  of  local  and  national  importance  and  pro- 
vide suitable  filing  facilities  so  they  may  be  available  for  class  work 
and  also  for  casual  perusal  of  individual  pupils  (Figs.  204,  205, 
and  206).  These  are  of  greater  educational  value  than  much  of 
the  expensive  equipment  frequently  found  reposing  in  some  dusty 
cupboard  unused  because  it  has  too  little  relation  to  real  life  in 
that  locality.  If  the  school  has  a  live  agricultural  teacher  and 
pupils  who  are  interested  in  farm  life,  the  agricultural  journals 
will  contribute  to  the  school  work  far  more  than  their  cost. 


ADDITIONAL  REFERENCES 


367 


In  addition  to  the  general  agricultural  pa|M«rs,  those  published 
in  the  interests  of  a  particular  breed  of  stock  or  a  particular  crop 
should  be  obtained  when  the  local  interest  is  sufficient  to  warrant. 


FIG.  205 


r 


Via.   205. — The  individual  stylo   of  reading   table   on   which   to   keep   and    use   mapazine- 

(Stanley  High  School,  Wis.) 

Fits.   200. — Large   magazine   table  with   compartments  for  agricultural  journal.".      i.Ia.*.    T. 

Love!!,  Tenn.) 

Additional  References. — The  Annual  Year  Book  and  Annual 
Reports   of   the   United   States   Department    of  Agriculture,    the 


368       HOW  TO  ORGANIZE  AN  AGRICULTURAL  LIBRARY 

Annual  Reports  of  the  Bureaus  of  Soils,  and  Animal  Industry  and 
States  Relation  Service,  the  Experiment  Station  Record,  and  the 
Crop  Reporter  of  the  Bureau  of  Markets,  all  from  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  should  be  in  the  library.  The  Monthly 
List  of  Publications  from  the  same  source  should  be  asked  for  by 
each  pupil  in  the  class  so  he  can  keep  informed  of  what  is  available 
in  the  particular  subject  upon  which  he  is  working. 

The  library  should  be  on  the  list  of  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Education  for  all  current  publications,  particularly  for  "School 
Life, "  a  monthly  devoted  to  school  activities,  including  agriculture. 

The  publications  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  of  your  state, 
especially  all  reports  and  the  year  book,  should  be  obtained  for 
past  years  and  should  be  kept  up  to  date  by  the  addition  of  new 
numbers  as  they  are  published.  If  similar  reports,  year  books  and 
other  official  publications  of  the  agricultural  boards  of  nearby 
states  can  be  obtained,  they  will  make  valuable  additions. 

Each  school  library  should  have  all  the  non-technical  and  some 
of  the  technical  bulletins  published  by  the  experiment  station  and 
the  extension  department  of  its  own  state  and  such  of  those  of 
the  other  states  having  the  same  type  of  agriculture  as  can  be 
readily  obtained. 

All  bulletins  and  reports  of  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational 
Education,  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  of  the  Board  for  Vocational 
Education  in  your  state,  as  well  as  the  bulletins,  reports,  and  other 
publications  of  the  state  officers  in  charge  of  vocational  education 
in  your  state  so  far  as  they  relate  to  agriculture  should  be  included. 
The  school  should  be  maintained  on  the  mailing  list  of  the  Voca- 
tional Summary,  a  monthly,  issued  by  the  Federal  Board.  In 
many  states  the  Department  of  Agricultural  Education  of  the 
State  University  or  State  College  of  Agriculture  issues  bulletins, 
news  letters,  and  other  publications  that  will  be  of  interest  to 
the  classes  in  agriculture.  The  various  publications  issued  by 
the  boys  and  girls'  club  leaders,  the  county  farm  bureaus,  and  by 
the  Boys'  Working  Reserve  contain  much  of  interest. 

Suggestive  lists  of  library  material  suitable  for  a  specific  school 
can  usually  be  obtained  from  the  State  Supervisor  of  Vocational 
Agriculture  or  the  head  of  the  department  of  agricultural  educa- 
tion in  the  State  College  of  Agriculture  or  University.  Every 
teacher  before  selecting  his  library  should  obtain  such  lists  and  also 
the  latest  ones  issued  by  the  Agricultural  Instruction  Division  of 
the  States  Relation  Service,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  the 


CLASSIFYING  369 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  and  the  Federal  Board  for  Voca- 
tional Education. 

Other  Materials. — Besides  the  sources  mentioned  under  "bul- 
letins, "  various  other  institutions  and  organizations  have  materials 
to  contribute  to  the  reference  resources  of  schools  teaching  agri- 
culture. Printed  material  and  pictures  issued,  sometimes  free,  by 
crop  associations,  livestock  associations,  commercial  organizations 
handling  agricultural  equipment  or  supplies,  and  manufacturing 
and  business  organizations  are  frequently  of  genuine  value  and 
can  often  be  used  to  advantage.  Some  discrimination  must  be 
exercised  to  prevent  the  insidious  influence  of  unwarranted  adver- 
tising creeping  into  the  school. 

Classifying. — If  the  library  reference  material  is  to  be  available 
for  prompt  and  convenient  use,  it  must  be  systematically  arranged. 
The  system  used  must  be  understood  by  those  who  use  the  library 
and  each  book,  pamphlet,  or  other  reference  must  have  a  defi- 
nite place  in  relation  to  the  others  and  must  always  be  found 
there  when  not  out  for  use.  To  accomplish  this  there  must 
be  a  definite  system  of  classification  and  a  filing  plan  which 
corresponds  to  it. 

The  Dewey  decimal  system  of  classification  is  the  one  almost 
universally  used  in  public  libraries  and  the  better  school  libraries 
of  the  United  States.  Superior  as  this  system  is  in  most  sub- 
jects, agricultural  science  and  the  literature  relative  thereto 
have  grown  to  such  enormous  proportions  and  have  developed 
to  such  a  high  degree  of  differentiation  that  the  original  Dewey 
classification  is  recognized  by  librarians  dealing  with  agriculture 
as  entirely  inadequate.  Because  of  this,  many  attempts  have 
been  made  to  supply  the  need.  Mrs.  F.  H.  Ridgeway  of  Berea 
College  published  one  l  based  on  the  Dewey  system  which  is  well 
adapted  to  the  classification  of  agricultural  books  in  a  library  of 
good  size. 

G.  A.  Deveneau,  University  of  Illinois,  developed  one  some- 
what more  brief  based  upon  a  decimal  system  but  not  using  the 
Dewey  basis  of  630  for  agriculture.2  C.  H.  Lane,  Director  for 
Agricultural  Education  on  the  Staff  of  the  Federal  Board  for 
Vocational  Education,  suggested  a  system  which  wholly  aban- 
doned both  the  decimal  and  alphabetic  bases.3  H.  B.  Fuller  of 

1  Library  Journal,  Vol.  38,  No.  10,  Oct.,  1913. 

2  See  "The  Teaching  of  Agriculture,"  Nolan. 

*  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education  Bulletin  No.  14,  June,  1918. 
24 


370       HOW  TO  ORGANIZE  AN  AGRICULTURAL  LIBRARY 


the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  prepared  a  system  4 
which  is  practically  decimal,  but  does  not  adhere  to  the  ten-unit 
basis.  Carefully  considering  all  these  and  others,  the  faculty  of 
the  Division  of  Agricultural  Education,  University  of  Minnesota, 
produced  the  following: 

Classification  of  Books  and  Bulletins  for  Agricultural  Libraries. 


631 


630  General: 

0.1  Agricultural  education. 

.11  Organization    and    adminis- 
tration. 

.12  Management. 
.121  General. 
.122  Class. 
.13  Supervision. 
.14  Methods. 
.15  Visual  instruction. 
.16  Graphic  representation. 
.17  Research. 
.18  Extension. 
.19  Miscellaneous. 
.191  Buildings. 
.192  Equipment. 
.193  Supplies. 

0.2  Experiment  station  reports,  etc. 
0.3  Extension     reports     and     general 

publications. 
0.4  Collegiate  education. 
0.5  Short  courses. 
0.6  School  of  Agriculture. 
0.7  Technology  and  sciences  allied  t'> 

agricultural  subjects. 
O.S  Dictionaries,  cyclopedias,  etc. 
0.9  Miscellaneous. 
Soils: 

1.1  Soil  surveys. 

1.2  Soil  physics. 

1.3  Soil  chemistry. 

1.4  Soil  tillage. 

1.5  Cropping  systems,  crop  rotations. 

1.6  Soil  moisture. 

1.7  Manures  and  fertilizers. 

1.8  Soil  bacteriology. 

1.9  Miscellaneous. 
632  Field  Crops: 

2.1  Cereals. 

2.11  Wheat. 

2.12  Barley. 

2.13  Oats. 

2.14  Rye. 

2.15  Corn. 

2.1(3  Emmer  and  speltz. 

2.17  Grain     sorghums — kafir, 

milo,  and  durra. 

2.18  Rice. 

2.19  Miscellaneous. 

2.2  Legumes. 

2.21  Alfalfa. 

2.22  Clovers. 

2.23  Cowpeas. 

2.24  Field  peas. 

2.25  Peanuts. 

2.20  Soybeans. 
2.27  Sweet  clover. 
2.2S  Vetches. 

2.29  Miscellaneous. 


632  Field  Crops  (Continued): 

2.3  Grasses — hay,  meadow,  and  pas- 

ture. 

2.31  Meadows  and  pastures. 

2.32  Blue  grass. 

2.33  Timothy. 

2.34  Millets. 

2.35  Prairie  and  native  grasses. 

2.36  Sudan  grass. 

2.37  Red  top. 
2.38 

2.39  Miscellaneous. 

2.4  Root  crops. 

2.5  Potatoes. 

2.6  Fiber  crops. 

2.61  Cotton. 

2.62  Flax. 

2.63  Hemp. 

2.64  Jute. 

2.65  Broom  corn. 
2.66 

2.67 
2.6S 
2.69  Miscellaneous. 

2.7  Sugar  yielding  plants — beets,  cane, 

sorghum,  maple. 
2.8 
2.9  Miscellaneous. 

2.91  Tobacco. 

2.92  Tea. 

2.93  Coffee. 

633  Horticulture: 

3.1  Vegetables. 

3.2  Orchards. 

3.3  Small  fruits. 

3.4  Landscape  gardening. 

3.5  The  wood  lot. 

3.6  Forestry. 

3.7  Gardening. 
3.8 

3.9  Miscellaneous. 

634  Entomology,    economic    zoology,    plant 

pathology,    economic    botany    and 
veterinary  science: 

4.1  Entomology. 

4.11  Bees. 

4.2  Economic  zoology. 

4.21  Birds. 

4.22  Rodents. 

4.3  Plant  pathology. 

4.4  Economic  botany. 

4.41  Poisonous  plants. 

4.5  Veterinary  science. 

4.6  Weeds. 
4.7 

4.8 

4.9  Miscellaneous. 


4  Published  in  "The  Visitor,"  Division  of  Agricultural  Education,  Uni- 
versity of  Minnesota,  Dec.,  191fi. 


ADVANTAGES  OF  THIS  SYSTEM 


371 


Classification  of  Hooks  ami  liullctin*  for  Agricultural  LUrrarics. 


635  Animal  husbandry: 

5. 1  Beef  rattle. 

5.2  Horses  and  mules. 

5.3  Sheep  and  goats. 

5.4  Swine. 

5.5  Poultry. 

5.6  Nutrition. 

5.7  Feeds  and  feeding. 
5.8 

5.0  Miscellaneous. 

636  Dairy  husbandry: 

6.1  Production. 

6.2  Manufacture. 

6.3  Equipment. 
6.4 

6.5 
6.6 
6.7 
6.8 
6.9  Miscellaneous. 

637  Engineering: 

7. 1  Farm  machinery. 

7.2  Farm  motors. 

7.3  Farm  building  and  fences. 

7.4  Roads  and  bridges. 

7.5  Drainage. 

7.6  Irrigation. 

7.7  Surveying  and  mapping. 
7.8 

7.9  Miscellaneous. 


638  Economics: 

8.1  Farm  management. 

8.2  Cooperation. 

8.3  Agricultural  credit  and  in-nr.-incp. 
K.4  Markets  and  marketing. 

8.5  Communication  —  telephone     and 

telegraph. 

8.6  Finance  and  taxation. 

8.7  Labor. 

8.8  Transportation. 
s.9  Miscellaneous. 

639  Miscellaneous: 

9.1  Climate  and  weather  reports. 

9.2  Fishing,  hunting,  trapping,  etc. 

9.3  Rural  sociology. 

9.31  Farm  organizations. 

9.32  Country  church. 

9.33  Rural  betterment. 

9.34  Red  cross. 

9.35  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
9.30  Y.  W.  C.  A. 
9.37 

9.38 

9.39  Miscellaneous. 

9.4  Catalogues,  seeds. 

9.5  Catalogues,  educational. 

9.6  Catalogues,  supplies. 

9.7  Catalogues,  apparatus. 

9.8  Catalogues,  equipment. 
0.9  Miscellaneous. 


Advantages  of  this  System. — For  a  public-  school  this  has  the 
following  advantages : 

It  conforms  closely  enough  to  the  Dewey  system  so  it  adapts 
the  agricultural  books  to  the  remainder  of  the  library  and  does  not 
destroy  the  working  system  in  the  school. 

It  is  sufficiently  elaborate  for  a  public  school  library. 

It  is  not  too  elaborate  to  be  adapted  to  bulletins  and  other 
pamphlets  as  well  as  to  books. 

It  permits  of  any  degree  of  expansion  without  in  any  way  losing 
its  proper  place  in  the  library  S3rstem  or  overlapping  any  other 
subject. 

By  conforming  to  the  Dewey  system  teachers  and  pupils  are 
not  burdened  with  two  systems. 

The  agricultural  material  can  be  housed  in  its  regular  place 
in  the  general  library  or  can  be  made  a  separate  library  in  the  agri- 
culture rooms  and  changed  back  and  forth  any  number  of  times 
without  confusion  or  loss  of  efficiency.  The  books,  bulletins,  and 
other  references  are  classified  on  the  same  basis. 

With  the  system  decided  upon,  the  proper  designation  can  be 
placed  upon  the  back  of  the  book  and  upon  the  upper  left  corner  of 
the  front  page  of  bulletins  and  other  pamphlets.  This  with  the 
author's  name  will  identify  the  book  or  pamphlet  and  determine 
its  place  upon  the  shelves. 


372       HOW  TO  ORGANIZE  AN  AGRICULTURAL  LIBRARY 

Card  Index. — All  books  should  be  card-indexed.  A  supply  of 
cards,  3  by  5  inches,  perforated  for  a  rod,  and  an  index  case  of  two 
to  four  drawers  with  a  rod  to  avoid  misplacement  or  loss  of  cards 
are  easily  obtained  and  any  librarian  will  give  information  about 
the  process  of  indexing.  In  addition  to  other  helps  the  Agricultural 
Index5  which  is  a  cumulative  index  to  bulletins  and  agricultural 
publications  will  be  of  great  aid  in  determining  the  classifications. 

Bulletins  may  be  card-indexed  if  desired.  Many  teachers  prefer 
to  use  them  without  indexing  to  avoid  the  time  and  trouble  not 


Fio.  207. — Library  and  bulletin  shelves  in  the  center,  with  apparatus  and  specimens  on  the 
sides,  in  a  Michigan  high  school  department  of  agriculture.     (W.  C.  Brown.) 

only  of  indexing  but  of  depending  upon  the  card  index  in  their  use. 

For  many  of  the  publications  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  such  as  farmers'  bulletins,  year  books,  and  circu- 
lars, index  cards  have  been  prepared  which  can  be  purchased  from 
the  Librarian  of  Congress. 

Arrangement. — The  books,  bulletins,  and  pamphlets  are  usually 
stood  with  backs  outward  on  suitable  shelves.  The  bulletins  and 
pamphlets  are  usually  placed  in  pasteboard  boxes  slightly  taller 
and  deeper  than  the  pamphlets  and  about  three  inches  thick  (Figs. 
207,  208,  and  209).  On  the  back  of  the  bulletin  box  is  placed  the 
decimal  number  and  also  the  name  of  the  subject  with  which  the 
pamphlets  deal.  The  bulletin  boxes  are  then  arranged  on  the 

*  Published  by  H.  W.  Wilson  Co.,  New  York. 


LOCATION 


373 


shelves  in  the  order  of  the  numbers,  if  a  numbering  system  is  used. 
If  a  numbering  system  is  not  used,  the  bulletin  boxes  are  arranged 
alphabetically  according  to  the  subject  matter  titles  used,  e.g., 
alfalfa,  beans,  corn. 

Another  system  of  arrangement  for  bulletins  and  pamphlets 
less  widely  employed  but  strongly  advocated  is  the  use  of  vertical 
filing  cases  and  guide  inserts  instead  of  shelves  and  pasteboard 
boxes.  Though  this  system  seems  more  expensive,  careful  esti- 
mates indicate  that  there  is  little  difference  if  installed  at  the 
beginning.  A  regulation  legal  cap  size  vertical  filing  drawer  of 
24-inch  depth  will  hold  from  200  to  300  bulletins  (standard  size, 


Fia.  208. 


Fio.  200. 


Fia.  208. — Side  of  laboratory  in  an  Alabama  high  school  showing  cases  and  tables  made  by 

agricultural  students.     (J.  B.  Wilson.) 

Fia.   209. — Bulletins  for  distribution  to  farmers  are  in  piles  on  the  upper  shelves.     Reference 
bulletins  are  in  the  pamphlet  cases. 

6  by  9^  inches)  by  placing  them  upright  in  two  rows.  A  four- 
drawer  cabinet  will  thus  hold  approximately  1000  bulletins.  With 
this  system  the  classification  is  shown  on  the  guides  and  on  the 
drawer  fronts.  The  cabinet  is  more  elastic,  more  orderly  in  appear- 
ance, and  more  cleanly  than  the  shelves  and  boxes. 

Location. — If  the  agriculture  pupils  prepare  their  lessons  in  the 
school  study  room,  using  the  agriculture  rooms  for  recitations  only, 
the  agricultural  library  should  be  in  the  same  room  with  the  other 
reference  material,  but  should  be  in  a  separate  group  easy  of  access 
for  those  who  pursue  agriculture.  If  double  periods  are  granted 
the  agriculture  classes  and  they  are  allowed  to  prepare  in  the 
agriculture  rooms,  then  the  agricultural  library  with  its  index 
cards  should  be  assembled  there  and  a  system  of  supervised 
study  inaugurated. 


374       HOW  TO  ORGANIZE  AN  AGRICULTURAL  LIBRARY 

Whichever  system  is  used,  if  the  agricultural  library  material 
is  classified  on  the  same  basis  as  is  the  general  library  perfect 
cooperation  is  possible  between  the  school  librarian  and  the  agri- 
cultural teacher.  If  the  agricultural  library  is  to  be  housed  in 
the  agriculture  rooms,  a  duplicate  set  of  index  cards  can  be  made 
which  will  leave  the  card  index  in  the  general  library  complete 
and  unchanged. 

Other  Libraries. — The  agricultural  library  should  be  supple- 
mented when  necessary  by  the  use  of  the  local  libraries  and  by 
utilizing  the  facilities  of  any  county  or  state  traveling  library 
available.  Such  facilities  are  increasing  rapidly  in  many  of  the 
states  and  furnish  opportunity  for  a  larger  use  of  references  with  a 
very  slight  increase  of  expense. 

EXERCISES  AND  QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  three  books  of  fiction  dealing  with  farming  which  you  have 
read  and  which  you  think  desirable  for  a  farmer,  as  a  farmer,  to  read. 

2.  Name  five  poems  that  depict  farm  life  (not  merely  the  out-of-door) 
which  you  would  recommend  for  the  agriculture  library.     Give  reasons  for 
recommendation. 

3.  Name  three  texts  in  addition  to  the  one  used  by  the  class  you  would 
like  to  have  the  library  obtain  to  use  in  farm  crops;  two  in  animal  husbandry; 
one  in  poultry;  one  in  horticulture;  one  in  farm  mechanics;  one  in  farm 
management. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  reference  books,  including  those  mentioned  in  exercise  3, 
(a)  you  would  buy  with  the  first  $25  available;    (6)  you  would  add  with 
the  next  $25;  (c)  you  would  add  with  the  next  $25. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  (a)  agricultural  periodicals  you  would  recommend  if 
you  were  allowed  ten  dollars  per  year  for  such  subscriptions;  (fc)  five  dollars 
additional. 

6.  Make  a  list  of    (a)  U.  S.  D.  A.  farmers'  bulletins  desirable  for  your 
locality  and  curriculum;  (6)  your  State  College  of  Agriculture  bulletins;  (c) 
bulletins  from  the  State  Agricultural  Colleges  of  five  neighboring  states,  listing 
each  state  separately;  (d)  from  miscellaneous  sources,  mentioning  the  sources. 

7.  Make  a  list  of  ten  bulletins  that  you  would  like  to  have  in  the  library 
relating  to  a  topic  in  which  you  are  specially  interested. 

8.  Name  three  books  on  some  phase  of  agriculture  you  would  recommend 
for  fanners  of  your  acquaintance. 

9.  Name  any  papers  which  you  know  come  into  the  neighborhood  that  are 
devoted  to  a  particular  breed  of  livestock  or  to  a  particular  crop. 

10.  Does  your  state  publish  a  year  book  of  agriculture?    How  many  have 
been  issued?     How  many  are  in  the  library  of  your  school? 

11.  Compare  the  classification  systems  mentioned  in  this  chapter,  choose 
the  one  you  prefer,  and  give  reasons  for  your  choice. 

12.  Study  carefully  the  classifying  system  used  in  your  school  or  in  a 
specific  one  familiar  to  you  and  explain  its  characteristics  and  operation. 

13.  Do  the  same  with  the  card-index  system. 

14.  Do  the  same  with  the  shelf  arrangement. 

15.  Give  arguments  for  and  against  the  shelf-pasteboard-box  system  of 
arrangine  bulletins. 

10.   Do  the  same  regarding  the  vertical  filing  cabinet  system. 


RK1-KRENCES  375 

17.  \\Tiere  should  the  agricultural  library  be  housed  in  your  school  (or  in 
a  specific  one  with  which  you  are  familiar)?    Why? 

18.  What  other  libraries  are  available  for  use  in  the  school  considered  in 
exercise  17? 

19.  Has  your  county  or  state  a  traveling  library  system? 

20.  If  so,  explain  how  you,  or  your  claws,  or  your  school  can  utilize  it. 

21.  Get  a  state  school  library  catalogue,  if  one  is  issued  by  your  state,  and 
check  books  suitable  for  your  library.     Suggest  omissions  and  additions. 

22.  Look  up  the  state  plan  for  aiding  schools  in  the  purchase  of  libraries; 
learn  steps  in  procuring  this  aid; obtain  the  blank  forms  used  for  this  purpose. 

REFERENCES 

HUMMEL,  W.  G.  AND  BERTHA  R.:    "Materials  and  Methods  in  High-School 

Agriculture." 

NOLAN,  ARETAS  W.:    "The  Teaching  of  Agriculture." 
STIMSON,  RUFUS  Wr.:    "Vocational  Agricultural  Education." 
McCoRD,  J.  N.:   "Textbook  of  Filing." 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
HOW  TO  CONDUCT  COMMUNITY  WORK 

EVERY  school  offering  a  course  in  agriculture  should  attempt 
to  conduct  work  in  relation  to  the  community  around  it.  It  may 
serve  a  purpose  in  helping  the  farmers  and  others  of  the  region. 
It  may  use  the  materials  and  practices  of  the  region  in  giving 
instructions  to  the  students  of  the  school. 

The  School  as  a  Community  Center. — Much  has  been  written 
by  educators  in  the  last  few  years  regarding  the  importance  of 
making  the  school  the  center  for  community  action  and  community 
endeavor.  The  school  building  may  be  used  as  a  meeting  place. 
In  this  way  the  building  serves  a  double  purpose.  Instead  of 
remaining  idle  many  hours  of  the  day  it  is  used  for  many  late  after- 
noon and  night  meetings.  Among  the  meetings  which  are  often 
held  at  the  school  houses  are  spelling  schools,  night  schools,  literary 
societies,  general  community  clubs,  parent-teachers'  associations, 
agricultural  clubs,  story-telling  classes,  reading  circles,  farmers' 
institutes,  short  courses  (Fig.  210),  boys  and  girls'  special  clubs, 
community  canning  circles,  sewing  circles,  cooperative  organiza- 
tions, dairy  associations,  fruit  growers'  associations,  poultry  asso- 
ciations, and  others  (Fig.  211). 

Let  the  school  serve  as  a  center  in  the  dissemination  of  knowl- 
edge, particularly  in  agriculture,  home  economics,  and  mechanics. 
The  people  should  feel  that  the  school  is  their  own  and  that  they 
can  come  to  the  school  for  information  on  any  subject  which  con- 
cerns their  home  work  and  home  life.  The  school  should  be  so 
well  equipped  that  it  can  give  the  information  desired  to  any  who 
may  inquire.  Much  of  this  information  may  be  given  by  means 
of  literature  or  through  books  in  the  library.  The  school  should 
have  a  valuable  library  which  can  be  circulated  among  people  of 
the  community.  It  should  not  be  of  the  common  type  of  popular 
novels  but  may  include  the  best  of  these.  It  should  have  sound 
books  on  topics  which  will  help  improve  the  life  of  the  community 
and  better  the  conditions  found  there.  Much  reading  of  good 
books  will  help  the  people  of  any  community.  A  school  orchestra 
(Fig.  212),  or  other  means  of  supplying  music,  will  aid  in  making 
the  school  an  attractive  center  for  the  community. 
376 


AGRICULTURAL  DEPARTMENT  AND  COMMUNITY       377 

Social  Room. — The  school  should  have  a  place  where  parents 
and  others  not  regularly  in  class  will  feel  at  home.  These  social 
rooms  should  have  comfortable  equipment  and  furniture  such  as 
club  rooms  often  have.  In  many  cases  communities  have  been 
willing  to  subscribe  funds  to  provide  and  equip  such  rooms.  They 
should  be  encouraged  to  place  these  rooms  in  the  school  building 


Fio.  210. — For  an  institute  held  under  the  auspices  of  the  agricultural  department,  the 

home  economics  students  baked  half  a  cord  of  bread,  roasted  140  pounds  of  meat,  and  served 

the  food  furnished  by  the  local  commercial  club.     (J.  A.  Cederstrom.) 

rather  than  in  separate  buildings,  if  the  school  is  to  be  a  social 
center.  The  cooking  equipment  of  the  school  may  be  used  on 
occasions  when  the  community  meetings  are  held  at  night  or  other 
times.  The  small  expense  for  heating,  lighting,  and  service  may 
be  met  by  special  funds  raised  for  the  purpose. 

The  Agricultural  Department  and  the  Community. — The  pur- 
pose of  this  chapter  is  to  suggest  and  discuss  methods  by  which 
the  agricultural  work  of  the  school  may  be  linked  up  closely  with 
the  farm  operations  of  the  region.  The  modern  methods  of  teach- 


378 


HOW  TO  CONDUCT  COMMUNITY  WORK 


ing  agriculture  through  home  project  work  aid  materially  in  bring- 
ing the  school  and  community  together.  Figure  114  is  a  map  of  a 
community  in  South  Carolina  made  and  used  by  an  agricultural 
instructor  in  the  high  school. 

For  convenience  let  us  consider  the  topics  of  this  chapter 


FIG.  211 


Fio.  212 

FIG.  211. — Community  clubs  may  be  called  occasionally  to  meet  on  the  farms  of  members 

and  other  times  at  the  school.     (A.  Z.  Arehart.) 

FIG.  212. — An  orchestra  organized  and  perhaps  led  (as  in  this  case)  by  the  teacher  of  agri- 
culture will  aid  in  making  the  school  an  attractive  center.  (Albert  F.  Laurence,  Minn.) 

under  two  main  headings:  (1)  How  the  community  problems  may 
be  brought  to  the  school,  chiefly  for  the  benefit  and  to  supply 
materials  and  problems  for  the  use  of  the  school.  (2)  How  the 
school  work  may  be  taken  out  to  the  community,  either  for  the 
benefit  of  the  students  or  for  the  benefit  of  people  in  the  community 
or  for  both  purposes. 


SEEDS  TO  INOCULATE  379 

BRINGING    COMMUNITY   PROBLEMS   TO   THE    SCHOOL 

Let  us  first  consider  how  materials  and  problems  of  the  com- 
munity may  be  brought  to  the  school  for  the  aid  of  the  work  in 
the  school.  By  the  use  of  things  which  are  furnished  by  the  jx^ople 
the  community  itself  is  linked  a  little  closer  to  the  school. 

Seed  Corn  to  be  Tested. — In  the  winter  season  when  the  class  in 
field  crops  is  ready  for  practice  in  seed  testing,  let  corn  or  other 
seeds  for  that  purpose  be  brought  from  farms  of  the  region.  Suj>- 
pose  that  Farmer  A  has  several  bushels  of  seed  corn  stored 
which  has  not  been  tested.  By  inquiry  some  memlxT  of  the;  class 
may  be  able  to  give  the  information,  and  the  corn  is  located. 
Arrangement  can  be  made  for  the  corn  to  be  brought  to  school 
and  kept  on  trays,  or  on  shelves,  or  hung  on  rope  ladders  or  other 
devices.  Let  the  students  have  the  necessary  practice  in  testing 
a  few  kernels  from  each  of  the  ears  of  corn  in  the  lot.  After  the 
testing  is  over  the  students  should  do  the  culling  necessary  to 
give  the  owner  the  desired  information  regarding  any  ears  which 
are  not  fit  for  planting.  The  corn  is  then  returned.  If  more  prac- 
tice of  this  nature  is  desired,  other  lots  of  corn  may  be  brought 
from  other  farmers. 

Corn  for  Judging. — Material  for  exercises  in  corn  judging  and 
corn  selection  may  be  obtained  from  farmers  of  the  community. 
They  will  be  glad  to  furnish  the  corn  for  this  pun>ose.  Most  of  it 
will  be  returned  eventually  to  the  owner.  Perhaps  the  ones  for 
judging  may  be  used  also  for  testing,  and  the  owner  will  receive 
much  benefit  by  having  it  tested  and  culled  before  planting  it. 

Grain  Judging  and  Seed  Testing. — It  often  occurs  that  seeds  of 
certain  crops  are  in  bad  condition  and  should  be  tested  before 
planting.  Wheat,  oats,  peas,  beans,  etc.,  may  need  careful  exami- 
nation, judging,  and  testing  before  they  arc  planted.  Farmers 
may  be  asked  to  furnish  large  enough  samples  for  these  purposes, 
and  all  students  will  receive  good  practice  in  grain  judging  and 
seed  testing. 

Seeds  to  Inoculate. — Offers  may  be  made  to  inoculate  legume 
seeds  for  farmers  of  the  community.  Students  need  practice  in 
doing  this  work.  A  suitable  place  is  the  school  laboratory.  Ma- 
terial for  inoculation  is  usually  available  in  the  soils  at  the  school. 
If  necessary,  inoculation  materials  may  be  obtained  from  other 
fields,  or  from  artificial  cultures.  It  should  not  be  announced 
that  the  school  will  do  all  the  inoculating  which  all  fanners  may 
want  done.  But  enough  work  of  this  kind  should  be  secured  from 


380  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  COMMUNITY  WORK 

the  community  to  teach  students  how  to  handle  the  materials 
and  seeds  well.  Let  them  learn  different  methods,  as  the  agglutina- 
tion method,  the  artificial  culture  method,  and  the  soil  method. 
The  seeds  will,  of  course,  be  returned  to  their  owners  ready  for 
planting.  The  farmers  and  students  have  both  been  benefited. 

Seeds  to  be  Cleaned  at  the  School. — In  regions  where  clover, 
timothy,  or  other  legumes  or  grass  seeds  are  threshed  for  use  or 
for  sale,  these  may  be  brought  to  the  school,  where  a  fanning  mill 
is  to  be  operated  by  the  students.  If  the  fanning  mill  is  not  owned 
by  the  school,  it  can  perhaps  be  secured  for  the  purpose  by  bor- 
rowing it  from  some  farmer  or  from  an  implement  dealer.  All  the 
students  in  the  field  crops  class  should  learn  to  know  the  problems 
of  seed  cleaning  and  learn  how  to  manipulate  the  seeds  and  the 
machine.  They  should  become  skilful  in  determining  the  sizes 
of  sieves  to  be  used,  and  in  determining  the  necessary  speed  of  the 
fan  in  the  mill.  If  the  seeds  such  as  those  before  mentioned  are 
not  available,  common  small  grains  may  be  used  for  the  purpose. 

Other  lessons  to  be  learned  in  these  exercises  are  the  sizes  and 
weights  of  the  different  kinds  of  weed  seeds.  They  should  learn 
to  know  what  kinds  of  trash  and  other  inert  matter  are  most 
quickly  found  in  the  different  seeds  run  through  the  mill.  Per- 
centages of  impurities  of  different  kinds  may  be  determined  by 
weighing  before  and  weighing  the  products  after  cleaning. 

Grain  to  Treat  for  Smut. — Let  samples  of  oats,  barley,  and 
wheat  be  brought  from  farms  of  the  region  to  be  treated  to  prevent 
smuts  of  different  kinds.  Several  methods  of  treatment  may  be 
practiced  by  students.  The  hot-water  method,  the  copper  sulfate 
method,  and  the  formalin  method  may  all  be  tried  and  the  results 
compared  in  the  season's  crops.  By  furnishing  the  grains  for  these 
exercises,  the  farmers  will  secure  treated  seeds  free  from  smut 
which  will  aid  materially  in  growing  better  crops  the  following 
season.  Other  farmers  of  the  region  may  wish  to  have  the  school 
treat  field  seeds  also.  This  may  not  be  necessary  so  far  as  prac- 
tice of  the  students  is  concerned.  Enough  practice  must  be  given 
to  the  students  to  enable  them  to  do  the  work  well  and  not  overlook 
any  of  the  essential  steps  in  the  operations.  Members  of  the  class 
may  thus  be  encouraged  by  other  farmers  to  do  similar  treating 
by  the  formalin  method  on  farms  of  the  community.  This  may 
be  with  or  without  compensation. 

Potatoes  Treated  for  Scab. — Let  one  or  more  growers  of  Irish 
potatoes  supply  seed  potatoes  to  be  treated  at  the  school  to  pre- 


CUTTINGS  OF  SMALL  FRUITS  FOR  SCHOOL  USE          381 

vent  the  development  of  scab  disease.  Facilities  for  treating  the 
potatoes  may  be  arranged  in  advance  and  a  definite  time  set  for 
the  operation.  Arrangements  can  usually  be  made  for  the  fanner 
to  have  a  wagon  load  or  less  of  the  potatoes  hauled  to  the  school 
at  that  time.  The  best  methods  of  treating  seed  potatoes  may  be 
practiced  by  the  students  working  in  groups.  If  desired,  the  lots 
treated  in  different  ways  may  be  kept  in  separate  sacks  when  they 
are  returned  to  the  owner.  He  may  be  so  instructed  as  to  be  able 
to  keep  these  separate  at  planting  time  so  that  results  can  be  com- 
pared in  the  next  crop. 

Scions  to  be  Grafted. — An  offer  may  be  made  to  the  farmers  of 
the  region  by  which  they  can  bring  to  the  school  scions  from  their 
best  apple  trees  to  be  grafted  on  to  roots  by  students  at  the  school. 
The  offer  should  limit  the  work  or  number  of  scions  so  that  the 
school  will  not  be  overburdened  with  too  much  practice  material. 
The  offer  should  be  made  in  late  fall,  and  the  scions  when  brought 
should  be  properly  labeled  with  variety,  owner's  name,  and  the 
number  of  grafts  he  is  to  receive  in  return.  Each  farmer  may  be 
charged  a  few  cents  each  for  the  grafts,  if  necessary,  to  cover  the 
cost  of  apple-seedling  roots  used  in  this  exercise.  The  stocks 
may  be  purchased  from  large  nurseries  in  the  Middle  West  and 
stored  in  moist  sawdust  in  a  cold  cellar  until  used.  When  the 
students  are  ready  for  practice  in  root  grafting  they  may  be  as- 
signed to  each  lot  of  scions  for  practice.  After  each  student  learns 
to  make  perfect  grafts,  the  next  point  should  be  speed.  This  skill 
and  speed  should  both  be  attained  by  all  members  of  the  class. 
Each  lot  of  grafts  is  carefully  labeled  on  small  painted  wooden 
labels  with  the  variety  of  fruit  and  the  owner's  name.  Some 
student  should  keep  a  record  at  each  laboratory  period  of  the  varie- 
ties, number  of  grafts  made,  and  the  owner  of  each  lot.  These 
are  again  stored  as  before  to  be  held  until  spring.  They  will  then 
be  delivered  to  the  owners  to  be  planted  almost  entirely  beneath  the 
ground  in  rows  in  the  garden  where  they  can  be  cultivated 
one  season. 

In  this  exercise  many  surplus  scions  may  be  obtained  for  use 
in  planting  a  small  school  nursery.  These  may  be  grafted,  stored, 
and  planted.  The  growth  and  care  of  small  nursery  trees  on  school 
grounds  will  furnish  other  good  lessons  in  fruit  growing. 

Cuttings  of  Small  Fruits  for  School  Use. — Students  of  the  class 
may  be  asked  to  bring  to  the  school  from  their  home  farms  prun- 
ings  from  small  fruits  such  as  currants  and  gooseberries,  and  roots 


382  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  COMMUNITY  WORK 

of  blackberries.  They  should  bring  primings  from  grape  vines  in 
early  winter.  They  may  also  bring  cuttings  of  ornamental  shrubs, 
such  as  privet  hedge,  Japanese  rose,  dwarf  barberry,1  golden  bell, 
and  many  others.  From  these  primings  suitable  cuttings  may 
be  made  for  future  planting.  These  may  be  stored  in  cold  cellars 
in  damp  sawdust  to  callous  until  spring  planting  time.  They 
may  then  be  set  deep  in  the  ground  in  garden  rows. 

Strawberries  and  Other  Perennials  to  Plant. — In  community 
surveys  or  in  trips  of  the  class  it  may  be  found  that  some  farmers 
of  the  region  have  many  surplus  plants  of  certain  kinds  which  they 
are  willing  to  divide  with  the  school.  Students  may  bring  these 
to  school  for  starting  plantations  on  the  land  laboratory.  Among 
such  plants  that  are  thus  found  and  supplied  may  be  any  or  all 
of  the  following:  Strawberries  of  several  different  varieties,  clumps 
of  asparagus  for  beds,  rhubarb  that  needs  dividing,  peonies  that 
need  dividing  and  thinning,  lilies  of  many  kinds,  iris,  daffodils 
and  narcissus,  cannas,  calladiums,  roses,  and  many  kinds  of 
ornamental  shrubs. 

The  school  may  thus  be  able  to  obtain  many  suitable  plants 
for  ornamental  planting  as  well  as  those  of  economic  value.  The 
students  will  receive  benefit  in  knowing  how  these  plants  are  trans- 
planted and  propagated.  They  may  also  have  good  lessons  in 
establishing  beds  and  in  arranging  ornamental  planting. 

Fruits  to  Judge. — Students  may  bring  from  their  homes  ex- 
hibits of  apples  or  other  fruits  to  be  shown  at  the  school  as  they 
would  show  them  at  fairs.  Some  of  these  may  be  arranged  on 
plates  and  used  by  students  in  the  study  of  varieties  and  in  judg- 
ing specimens. 

Some  of  the  apples  may  be  brought  in  boxes  for  use  and  may 
be  used  by  the  students  for  practice  in  packing.  Unsorted  fruit 
may  be  used  in  sorting  and  grading  exercises.  After  fruit  has 
been  sorted  and  graded  according  to  size,  different  sizes  may  be 
packed  by  different  systems. 

Insect  Enemies. — On  every  farm  there  are  insect  enemies  which 
are  not  well  understood.  Farmers  of  the  region  should  be  encour- 
aged to  bring  specimens  of  such  insects  to  the  school  for  identifica- 
tion and  study.  Many  questions  in  the  farmer's  mind  are  easily 
settled  by  the  school.  Students  will  receive  benefit  in  identifying 
the  specimens  and  in  investigating  the  life  history  of  various  kinds 
and  in  methods  of  control.  In  many  cases,  students  who  have  learned 

1  Avoid  the  common  barberry,  which  harbors  grain  rust. 


PLANNING  FARM  STRUCTURES  383 

how  to  look  up  insect  literature  may  be  assigned  to  the  problems 
presented  by  farmers.  After  enough  training  all  members  of  the 
class  may  be  enlisted  in  such  work. 

Plant  Diseases. — When  farmers  find  various  fruits,  field  crops, 
or  garden  crops  affected  by  diseases  they  should  bring  the  parts 
or  plants  affected  to  the  school.  Other  students  and  instructors 
may  make  good  use  of  the  material  and  may  be  able  in  most  cases 
to  assist  the  farmer  in  solving  problems  of  fighting  the  enemy. 

Noxious  Weeds  of  the  Region. — Numerous  questions  should  be 
asked  by  people  in  the  community  regarding  certain  strange  weeds 
introduced  from  time  to  time  from  other  regions.  The  length  of 
life,  nature  of  growth,  methods  of  spreading,  and  other  information 
regarding  the  weeds  can  be  obtained  from  students  or  the  instruc- 
tor at  the  school.  Students  will  get  much  benefit  in  studying 
such  specimens  and  looking  up  literature  regarding  each  kind  of 
pest.  Farmers  should  be  instructed  regarding  the  best  methods  of 
eradication  and  control.  They  may  be  shown  what  kinds  of  rota- 
tion of  crops  will  best  destroy  certain  types  of  weeds  with  least 
labor.  The  slow,  laborious  ways  of  fighting  weeds  should  always 
be  condemned  and  supplanted  with  the  easy  wholesale  methods. 

Farm  Machinery  to  Repair  and  Study. — (  )n  some  farms  of  nearly 
all  regions  machines  can  be  found  which  need  considerable  repair. 
Students  in  farm  shop  work  may  need  just  the  practice  which 
this  machinery  would  supply.  Classes  will  thus  get  practice  in 
replacement  of  old  parts  with  new  ones  and  in  doing  all  kinds  of 
repair  work.  The  farmers  may  be  willing  to  pay  for  the  repairing 
done  by  students,  and  should  at  least  pay  for  the  newparts  f  urnished. 

Schools  in  need  of  such  practice  work  should  try  to  locate  in 
their  communities  suitable  machinery  for  the  purpose;  an  auto- 
mobile engine,  a  badly  worn  tractor,  a  stationary  engine,  a  binder, 
a  corn  harvester,  a  thresher,  a  mower,  a  wagon. 

Planning  Farm  Structures. — When  the  classes  in  farm  me- 
chanics and  engineering  are  ready  to  plan  farm  buildings,  it  may 
be  possible  to  find  some  fanner  in  the  community  who  is  alxmt 
ready  to  consider  plans  for  a  barn,  dairy  house,  or  other  structure. 
Get  this  farmer  to  tell  the  class  what  he  needs:  approximate  size, 
number  of  animals  (if  a  barn),  feed  storage  needed,  special  rooms 
desired,  slope  of  the  ground,  materials  most  available,  limits  of 
cost.  Assign  certain  students  or  the  whole  class  to  the  problem. 
They  will  get  much  more  training  from  studying  and  planning  a  real 
structure  than  one  which  mav  never  be  built.  The  farmer  will  doubt- 


384  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  COMMUNITY  WORK 

less  get  a  better  planned  structure  than  if  he  planned  it  himself  or 
built  it  without  any  definite  plan.  Students  should  make  drawings 
of  the  floor  plans  and  certain  elevations  and  sections.  They  should 
also  make  a  detailed  list  of  materials  required  for  the  structure. 

If  this  problem  can  be  worked  out  on  a  building  which  is  typical 
in  size  and  other  respects,  it  may  be  used  by  several  farmers  later. 
It  will  thus  serve  as  a  type  of  good  structure  for  the  community. 
In  that  case  it  should  bear  the  name  of  the  school  or  the  name  of 
the  farmer  who  first  built  it. 

Ventilation  of  Buildings. — In  middle  and  northern  climates, 
the  King  system  of  ventilation  or  some  other  good  system  should 
be  installed  in  farm  barns.  Farmers  deciding  to  install  such  a 
system  should  come  to  the  school  to  get  plans  that  may  be 
suited  to  their  particular  structures.  After  stating  their  problems 
to  the  class,  suitable  plans  should  be  furnished  by  students  to 
each  farmer. 

Milk  and  Cream  to  Test  at  the  School. — Farmers  should  know 
more  definitely  the  producing  powers  of  members  of  their  dairy 
herds.  They  may  be  induced  to  bring  in  samples  of  milk  of  each 
cow  in  their  herds  for  the  school  to  test.  The  weight  of  milk  and 
the  presence  of  butter  fat  are  two  important  factors  from  which  is 
determined  the  value  of  each  milch  cow.  In  dairy  regions  farmers 
are  keeping  cows  that  do  not  pay  for  their  keep.  Farmers  should 
be  taught  to  weigh  their  milk  and  to  take  samples  carefully.  They 
can  systematically  bring  these  samples  to  the  school  for  testing. 
Poison  tablets  to  keep  the  samples  from  spoiling  may  be  furnished 
by  the  school.  The  report  of  a  cow's  production  should  be  calcu- 
lated by  students  after  adding  weights  for  a  given  period  and 
multiplying  this  by  the  percentage  of  butter  fat  found  in  the  test. 
The  immense  money  value  of  close  cooperation  in  this  work  by 
the  community  and  the  school  can  hardly  be  estimated. 

Animals  for  School  Instruction. — Farmers  can  bring  to  the 
school  specimens  of  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  hogs,  and  poultry  for 
use  of  students  in  animal  husbandry  in  judging  work.  Instructors 
knowing  the  location  of  suitable  animals  in  the  community  can 
usually  secure  them  for  this  purpose.  Owners  are  often  glad  to 
have  their  animals  thus  exhibited  and  used.  The  loan  of  the 
animals  should  be  treated  by  the  instructor  as  a  concession  to  the 
school — supplying  something  which  the  school  greatly  needs. 
The  owners  will  usually  obtain  good  training  themselves  while 
their  animals  are  being  studied  by  students. 


385 

Classes  should  be  ready  to  make  the  best  use  of  the  animals 
while  they  are  there.  All  preliminary  studies  for  the  work  should 
be  completed  in  advance.  The  actual  use  and  practice;  work 
should  begin  and  continue  during  the  period  planned  while  the 
animals  are  there.  A  place  to  keep  the  animals  should  be  providwl 
in  advance.  All  schools  should  plan  to  have  pens  or  other  more 
suitable  quarters  where  such  studies  can  l>e  pursued.  The  animals 
may  be  driven  or  hauled  to  and  from  the  school  by  the  owners 
when  desired. 

Some  of  the  exercises  with  horses  brought  to  the  school  may 
consist  of  examining  them  for  unsoundness,  for  blemishes,  and 
for  malformations.  Other  exercises  with  animals  may  consist  of 
treating  them  for  disease,  or  for  other  purposes.  Specimens  exhibit- 
ing certain  characteristics  of  structure,  gait,  or  other  peculiarities 
may  be  used  as  object  lessons  in  class  instruction.  Examples  of 
breeds  of  the  different  classes  of  livestock  may  be  brought  to  the 
school  to  illustrate  the  types  or  breeds.  All  the  classes  of  farm 
animals,  including  poultry,  may  be  brought  at  different  times  to  the 
school  for  this  purpose. 

Soils  to  Test  and  Study. — All  regions  of  the  community  should 
supply  soil  samples  to  the  school.  Fresh  samples  may  be  tested  for 
lime,  for  acidity,  for  amount  of  organic  matter,  and  for  water-holding 
capacity.  Samples  should  be  kept  permanently  in  jars  or  bottles. 
The  labels  should  show  on  what  farms  orwhat  fields  they  were  taken, 
with  date  and  results  of  tests.  These  can  be  used  by  classes  study- 
ing soil  maintenance  and  crop  production  whenever  occasion  offers. 

TAKING    THE    SCHOOL   WORK    TO   THE    COMMUNITY 

There  are  chiefly  two  purposes  in  attempting  to  extend  the 
activities  of  the  school  throughout  the  region:  (1)  to  give  the 
students  practice  or  instruction  with  materials,  and  objects,  found 
in  the  community;  (2)  to  aid  members  of  the  community  in  the 
kinds  of  work  which  students  are  pursuing.  These  two  purposes 
may  often  be  combined  and,  indeed,  usually  should  be  combined 
in  all  of  the  extension  work  of  the  school.  It  should  be  noted 
here  that  this  chapter  does  not  deal  with  the  home  project  work 
of  students,  which  is  in  itself  an  important  phase  of  community 
extension  work.  How  to  Conduct  Home  Project  Work  is  the 
title  of  another  chapter  in  this  book. 

Lines  of  Extension  Work  to  Encourage. — The  agricultural  sur- 
veys made  through  members  of  the  school  should  serve  as  a  means 
25 


386  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  COMMUNITY  WORK 

of  knowing  what  kinds  of  extension  work  to  pursue.  The  instruc- 
tor will  grow  more  and  more  acquainted  with  the  agricultural 
conditions  of  the  region.  He  can  better  select  lines  of  work  which 
will  be  of  value  to  the  farmers  of  the  community.  He  will  know 
better  what  places  are  most  suitable  for  giving  the  desired  instruc- 
tion to  his  students. 

Under  the  following  headings  are  discussed  a  number  of  topics 
with  suggestions  for  working  out  details  regarding  the  work  of  the 
school  in  the  region.  A  few  schools  may  find  some  of  these  lines 
of  extension  work  not  suited  to  their  local  conditions,  but  it  is 
believed  that  from  the  list  may  be  selected  a  number  of  valuable 
kinds  of  work,  the  pursuing  of  which  will  benefit  both  the  school 
and  the  people  of  any  region. 

Lessons  on  Poultry  Farms. — Take  the  students  to  important 
poultry  plants  of  the  region.  Let  each  trip  be  for  a  particular 
purpose.  Many  incidental  lessons  can  be  learned  on  every  trip. 
Suppose,  for  example,  that  the  people  of  one  region  desire  a  lesson 
on  culling  poultry  for  the  laying  flocks.  The  class  may  be  taken 
in  carry-alls  or  in  automobiles  to  a  suitable  place  where  plenty  of 
birds  are  ready  for  the  exercise.  Let  every  student  and,  so  far  as 
possible,  every  member  of  the  community  have  practice  in  actual 
culling  fowls  after  the  points  in  culling  have  been  reviewed  at  the 
place.  This  makes  the  lesson  practical  for  both  students  and 
people.  No  student  can  become  an  expert  in  such  work  without 
practice.  On  another  occasion  the  special  practice  work  may  be 
in  caponizing.  At  another  place  disinfecting  houses,  or  otherwise 
stamping  out  a  disease,  may  be  the  chief  object.  Read  again 
the  points  suggested  under  the  head  of  poultry  trips  in  the  poul- 
try chapter. 

Lessons  on  Dairy  Farms. — Some  of  the  special  iines  of  practice 
for  students  taken  out  to  dairy  farms  are  the  following:  Selection 
and  culling  young  stock  for  the  future  herd ;  selecting  and  culling 
producing  cows  (Fig.  213) ;  the  registration,  numbering,  and  ear- 
marking of  animals;  the  treating  of  calves  to  prevent  horns;  the 
dehorning  of  animals ;  the  castration  of  calves ;  the  study  of  methods 
of  feeding  and  management  and  improving  of  these;  the  making 
of  calf -feeding  stanchions;  the  installing  of  cement  floors,  man- 
gers, and  manure  gutters;  the  installing  of  tracks,  and  litter 
carriers  and  feed  carriers. 

A  number  of  other  suggestions  regarding  dairy  trips  have  been 
given  in  the  chapter  on  dairying. 


AN  EXTENSION  TRIP   FOR  WORK   WITH  SHEEP         W7 

An  Example  of  Extension  Work  with  Swine.  -Many  agricultural 
teachers  have  taken  their  classes  out  to  swine  farms  to  treat  herds 
against  cholera.  When  such  practice  is  to  l>e  given,  the  instructor 
should  be  certain  that  authority,  if  necessary,  has  l>een  obtained 
from  state  officials  for  the  handling  of  cholera  serum  or  virus  or 
both.  Let  all  students  understand  and  practice  the  methods  of 
disinfection  of  instruments  and  skin  of  the  animal.  Let  them  all 
have  practice  in  managing  the  animal  to  be  treated.  Let  all  have; 
practice  in  using  the  instruments  and  materials.  Let  the  owner 
also  have  practice  in  all  of  these  for  his  own  future  needs.  In 
connection  with  such  a  trip  the  students  should  learn  the  dosage 
tables  and  should  drill  on  points  of  difficulty.  They  should  learn 
the  probable  causes  of  failure  and  the  remedies  for  these.  If  any 
cholera  is  manifested,  all  should  study  the  symptoms  carefully. 
If  a  dead  pig  has  been  found,  a  post-mortem  examination 
should  be  made,  and  the  definite  marks  of  cholera  on  the 
kidneys  and  other  parts  should  be  noticed.  All  such  work 
should  be  in  full  harmony  with  local  veterinarians  as  well  as 
state  authorities. 

Other  Lessons  with  Swine. — Among  the  special  objects  of  trips 
to  farms  where  hogs  are  raised  may  be  mentioned  the  following: 
The  study  of  special  breeds  or  study  of  certain  families  of  breeds; 
the  study  of  special  methods  of  managing  hog  pastures  and  other 
lines  of  feeding;  the  treating  of  hogs  for  lice,  worms,  and  other 
enemies;  the  castration  of  pigs;  the  judging  of  animals  and  selecting 
the  breed  of  stock  both  male  and  female;  the  registration,  number- 
ing, and  ear-marking  of  pigs;  the  making  of  hog  cots  and  special 
swine  appliances.  Refer  again  to  the  swine  trip  suggested  in  the 
animal  husbandry  chapter. 

An  Extension  Trip  for  Work  with  Sheep. — (Jood  practice  for 
students  in  many  schools  would  be  the  shearing  of  sheep  and  di[>- 
ping  of  animals  after  shearing.  All  students  should  be  given  prac- 
tice by  shearing  several  animals.  They  should  learn  how  to 
handle  the  animals,  how  to  shear  by  hand  and  by  machine  clippers, 
and  how  to  take  care  of  the  fleece.  After  the  shearing  exercise 
is  over,  students  may  be  given  practice  in  judging  fleeces  and 
estimating  weights. 

In  many  sections  of  the  country,  it  is  a  good  practice  for  owners 
to  dip  sheep  after  shearing.  This  is  to  combat  ticks,  seal),  and 
other  external  troubles.  Students  and  owner  should  make  a  vat, 
or  at  least  study  the  structure  of  a  pood  dipping  vat,  learn  to  make 


388 


HOW  TO  CONDUCT  COMMUNITY  WORK 


suitable  mixtures  for  different  purposes,  and  learn  to  manage 
animals  before  and  after  dipping. 

Other  Lessons  with  Sheep. — Among  the  other  special  lessons 
(Fig.  213)  learned  on  trips  to  farms  where  sheep  are  kept  the 
following  may  be  mentioned :  Making  or  otherwise  studying  suit- 
able winter  quarters  for  pregnant  ewes;  the  winter  feeding  of 
hot-house  lambs;  the  structure  of  feeding  racks  and  other  sheep 


)n  a  neighboring  stock  farm  these  Missouri  students  obtained  good  practice  in 
judging  sheep  and  dairy  cattle.     (J.  A.  Wisdom.) 


appliances;  the  operation  of  docking;  treating  of  hoofs;  castration; 
the  selection  of  breeding  stock  and  other  judging  of  sheep;  the 
marking  of  pedigreed  stock;  the  management  of  ewes  and  lambs 
at  lambing  time.  In  connection  with  the  last  mentioned  topic, 
students  should  be  given  practice  in  making  ewes  own  their  lambs, 
in  making  ewes  adopt  orphan  lambs,  and  in  making  ewes  whose 
lambs  are  dead  adopt  lambs  from  pairs  of  twins. 

Lessons  in  these  points  can  be  learned  by  the  owners  at  the 
same  time.  In  all  of  the  topics  mentioned  let  students  and  owners 
get  as  much  instruction  and  actual  practice  as  the  occasion  offers. 


OTHER  LESSONS  ON  BEEF  CATTLE  FARMS 


An  Extension  Trip  to  a  Beef  Cattle  Farm.— When  the  claws  go<* 
to  a  txH'f  cattle  farm  for  the  grading  of  lots  of  animals  for  the 
purpose  of  marketing,  feeding,  etc.,  they  should  all  be  given 
active  practice  in  every  step  of  the  work.  An  owner  of  a  herd 
which  needs  grading  and  dividing  in  the  fall  after  the  stock 
have  been  brought  in  from  grazing  can  often  \yc  found.  He  may 
be  willing  and  anxious  to  have  the  assistance  of  the  instructor 
and  students  in  this  work.  This  is  more  important  to  him  when 
there  are  large  numbers  of  animals.  The  students  and  owner 
should  be  instructed  in  the  different  grades  which  should  lx?  made. 
Examples  of  each  grade  can  be  selected  and  separated  for  brief 
study.  This  preliminary  work  should  then  be  followed  by  abun- 


Fio.   214. — In  a  region  where  there  are  good  breeds  of  livestock,  students  and  farmers  may 

be  given  practice  in  examining  and  judging  them.     The  school  need  not  own  them  if  home 

project  methods  are  followed.     (A.  M.  Field.) 

dant  rapid  practice  by  all  members  of  the  class.  After  the  grouping 
has  been  completed  and  the  animals  well  sorted  for  the  winter,  the 
exercise  may  be  followed  by  making  plans  for  the  proper  care  and 
management  of  each  lot  of  cattle.  Students  may  be  given  exercises 
in  judging  weights  and  in  actually  weighing  those  to  be  sold. 

Other  Lessons  on  Beef  Cattle  Farms. — -When  students  go  to 
beef  cattle  farms  they  may  have  exercises  and  study  in  a  numlxr 
of  things  of  value  to  themselves,  to  the  owner,  and  usually  of  value 
to  both:  The  marking  of  pedigreed  stock ;  the  making  up  of  sale 
lists  for  auction  sales;  the  preparing  of  pure-bred  animals  for  fairs 
and  sales,  as  clipping,  washing,  grooming,  dressing  horns,  and 
preparing  feed  rations;  the  dehorning  and  castration  of  animals; 
the  branding  of  cattle  before  going  on  to  ranches  in  the  spring; 
the  vaccination  for  black-leg;  the  making  of  racks  and  other  appli- 
ances for  feeding  and  care  of  beef  cattle. 


390  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  COMMUNITY  WORK 

An  Extension  Lesson  on  a  Horse  Farm. — Suppose  the  class  is 
taken  to  a  farm  where  pure-bred  horses  are  raised.  The  owner 
will  usually  be  glad  to  have  the  students  come  and  may  be  able 
to  glean  a  few  points  from  the  lesson  himself.  Students  may  be 
given  an  abundance  of  practice  in  judging  and  selecting  animals 
on  the  farm  (Fig.  214).  Colts,  brood  mares,  and  sires  may  be 
first  judged  by  score  cards,  then  they  may  be  compared  with  each 
other  in  groups  of  the  same  age.  Let  students  have  practice  in 
discovering  and  pointing  out  weak  points  and  strong  points  of 
all  the  different  animals.  Features  which  go  to  make  up  types 
should  be  studied  carefully  and  all  students  induced  to  drill  upon 
all  the  animals  found  on  the  farm.  Make  special  drills  and 
practice  to  make  students  skilful  in  finding  unsoundnesses, 
blemishes  and  defects.  Drill  in  determining  the  ages  of  animals. 
They  should  all  study  gaits  until  they  become  somewhat  expert 
in  the  detection  of  different  gaits  and  judging  of  animals  concerning 
their  gaits. 

Other  Lessons  on  Horse  and  Mule  Farms. — When  students  go 
to  places  in  the  community  they  may  make  special  studies  of  any 
of  the  following  points :  The  management  of  work  animals  brought 
in  from  plantation  work  in  hot  or  cold  weather;  the  management 
of  harnesses  and  implements  or  vehicles  where  many  animals  are 
worked;  the  problems  of  proper  feeding,  watering,  and  grooming 
on  farms  where  a  number  of  drivers  are  engaged;  the  problems 
of  grading  and  feeding  a  number  of  young  animals  that  are  to 
be  kept  over  winter;  the  special  problems  of  feeding  animals 
for  sales;  the  special  problems  of  feeding  mules  and  other  work 
teams  for  exhibition;  the  planning  of  interior  of  barns  and  stalls; 
the  care,  management  and  feeding  'of  breeding  animals,  both 
male  and  female. 

When  students  visit  farms  for  any  of  these  studies,  the  prac- 
tices of  owners  should  be  discussed.  Score  cards  can  be  used 
by  which  successes  in  different  operations  may  be  rated.  The 
students  should  be  given  practice  so  far  as  possible  in  operations 
which  will  make  them  more  skilful. 

Diseases  of  Animals.— Many  schools  with  agricultural  depart- 
ments, located  in  regions  where  veterinarians  are  either  scarce  or 
kindly  disposed  towards  the  school  work,  find  it  possible  to  aid 
fanners  in  preventing  or  treating  nearly  all  classes  of  common 
diseases  of  farm  animals.  Students  who  are  capable  and  who  have 
had  practice  in  the  work  are  sent  to  various  farms  when  called 


SPRAYING  AND  OTHER  LESSONS  WITH  FRUITS          391 

in  many  cases,  and  when  the  whole  class  need  to  Ix;  instructed 
they  all  go  to  the  farm  for  the  lesson.  The  farmer  himself,  if  unin- 
formed, should  always  be  instructed  and  requinxl  to  take  part  in 
the  treatment  so  that  he  need  not  call  for  the  same  kind  of  help 
a  second  time. 

A  Lesson  in  Orchard  Pruning. — When  some  farmer  in  the 
region  needs  help  in  learning  to  prune  his  home  orchard  properly, 
the  class  may  go  to  his  farm  for  practice.  Be  sure  that  the  owner 
and  his  laborers  are  at  home,  as  they  should  all  receive  the  instruc- 
tion while  the  class  is  getting  practice  in  pruning.  After  the  first 
preliminary  lesson  regarding  how  to  prune  and  what  to  prune 
have  been  reviewed,  the  students  and  owner  should  each  be  set 
to  work  in  practicing  these  methods.  The  instructor  should  go 
among  them  frequently  and  rapidly  to  avoid  as  many  mistakes 
as  possible.  Pruners  will  often  be  in  doubt  just  what  to  cut,  and 
the  instructor's  decision  will  have  to  be  rendered.  Teach  them 
all  as  soon  as  possible  to  make  decisions  for  themselves  and  to 
work  as  if  they  were  alone  and  the  trees  were  their  own. 

If  future  pruning  trips  are  to  be  made,  let  different  kinds  and 
different  ages  of  trees  be  selected  for  the  purpose.  Neighbors 
should  be  invited  to  be  present  and  participate  in  pruning  demon- 
strations and  exercises.  If  different  trips  are  then  taken  in  different 
directions  from  the  school  the  people  in  several  neighborhoods 
will  be  given  opportunity  to  learn  pruning  methods. 

Spraying  and  Other  Lessons  with  Fruits. — Many  owners  of 
home  orchards  fail  to  study  the  subject  of  combating  insects  and 
diseases  enough  to  properly  protect  their  own  fruit.  The  fruit 
class  may  go  to  the  orchards  in  different  neighborhoods  to  spray 
for  enemies  which  should  be  fought  in  the  winter.  They  may  go 
to  still  others  for  subsequent  spraying  work.  The  student  will 
thus  get  practice  in  making  up  spraying  materials  for  different 
pests  and  for  different  seasons.  They  should  learn  to  handle 
different  kinds  of  spray  apparatus.  Perhaps  some  of  the  spraying 
outfits  will  be  owned  by  the  farmers,  and  in  some  cases  the  school 
equipment  will  be  used.  Let  farmers  be  urged  to  provide  their 
own  equipment,  which  maybe  selected  for  them  by  the  school. 

Give  the  students,  owners,  and  neighbors  instruction  and  prac- 
tice in  fighting  borers,  combating  mice  and  rabbits. 

At  marketing  time  the  fruit  class  may  go  to  various  orchards 
for  practice  in  picking,  sorting,  packing,  and  storing  or  marketing 
fruit.  Community  demonstrations  should  lx>  made  on  all  of  these 


392  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  COMMUNITY  WORK 

occasions  so  as  to  extend  widely  the  best  practices.  The  school 
may  also  conduct  projects  in  utilization  of  waste  products  by 
canning,  making  preserves,  drying,  making  cider  and  other  juices. 

Exercises  in  Budding. — If  stocks  have  been  started  in  the 
spring  by  farmers  or  by  nurserymen  living  near  the  school,  let 
members  of  the  class  have  practice  in  the  early  fall  in  budding 
such  fruits  as  peaches,  plums,  cherries,  and  apples. 

Starting  Orchards. — If  it  is  found  that  some  one  in  the  region  is 
planning  to  set  out  a  young  orchard,  the  school  may  go  to  his 
assistance.  One  trip  may  be  made  to  lay  off  the  orchard,  stake 
places  for  trees,  and  perhaps  dig  holes  in  the  proper  place  with  the 
use  of  planting  boards  for  the  future  placing  of  trees.  On  another 
day  let  students,  owners,  and  neighbors  have  practice  in  plant- 
ing trees  properly.  They  should  learn  to  prune  roots  and  tops 
before  planting. 

Landscape  Garden  Practice. — After  the  school  has  had  practice 
in  planting  shrubbery,  starting  lawns,  and  planting  vines  and 
trees  about  the  school,  there  may  be  need  for  practice  at  a  few 
other  places,  provided  grounds,  church  yards,  and  farm  homes 
may  be  used  for  such  work.  Students  should  each  be  expected 
to  make  drawings  showing  plans  for  planting  and  showing 
what  changes  should  be  made  in  the  lay-out.  Owners  should  be 
expected  to  supply  the  trees,  shrubs,  vines,  and  seeds  for  the  work. 
They  should  also  take  active  part  by  the  removal  of  rubbish, 
hauling  good  soil  where  needed,  supplying  manure,  providing 
water  if  needed,  and  by  taking  part  in  the  planting.  Some  classes 
have  been  successful  in  having  good  community  gatherings  on 
such  occasions.  All  people  of  the  community  are  thus  given  a 
chance  to  learn  the  principles  of  landscape  gardening,  and  to  see 
one  good  example  of  putting  these  points  to  use.  (See  again  the 
suggestions  given  in  the  chapter  on  horticulture.) 

Community  Lessons  in  Home  Gardens. — When  people  want 
help  from  the  school  in  gardening  subjects,  individual  students  or 
the  whole  class  may  be  given  practice  while  helping  them.  Some 
of  the  special  lessons  which  are  often  given  by  schools  to  farmers 
and  other  families  and  neighbors  are  here  mentioned:  The  making 
of  hotbeds  and  coldframes  and  the  starting  of  these  in  the  spring; 
the  making  of  compost  heaps;  the  laying  out  and  planning  of 
home  gardens;  new  methods  of  staking  and  trellising;  combating 
insects  and  diseases ;  the  preparing  of  special  products  for  market- 
ing; the  treating  of  Irish  potatoes  to  prevent  scab  disease;  the 


WORK   IN  TERRACING  AND  LAND   DRAINAGK 


393 


installing   of   irrigation   systems;   the   planning   and   starting   of 
systems  of  succession  and  companion  cropping. 

New  Plants  for  Farms. — If  the  school  has  shown  that  certain 
new  plants  are  successful  in  that  region  by  growing  them  on  the 
school  grounds,  they  should  soon  lie  introduced  on  many  of  tin; 
surrounding  farms.  For  example,  if  soyl>eans,  alfalfa,  rape,  or 
other  crops  are  not  grown  in  the  vicinity  but  should  l>e  grown, 
give  demonstrations  in  how  to  start  these  crops.  Arrange;  with 
some  farmer  to  grow  one  or  more  of  these  crops  at  home.  Have  the 
ground  prepared  according  to  directions  in  advance.  Let  the 


Fio.  215. — A  group  of  agriculture  students  of  the  Santa  Rosa  High  School  visited  the  experi- 
mental grounds  of  Luther  Burbank  and  were  favored  with  a  two-hour  demonstration  and 
lecture  on  plant  production.  Center:  Luther  Burbank  and  county  agricultural  director. 

(C.  L.  Hampton.) 

class  and  neighbors  be  present  for  the  final  planting  of  the  crop 
and  for  the  performance  of  any  special  steps  needed  in  starting 
the  crop,  as  liming,  inoculation,  and  special  fertilizing.  On  such 
an  occasion  let  members  of  the  class  be  ready  to  give  to  the  com- 
munity meeting  short  talks  from  the  charts  touching  upon  different 
phases  of  the  management  of  the  new  crop.  Plant  breeding  or 
any  new  productions  in  the  region  may  be  made  the  object  of 
trips  (Fig.  215). 

Work  in  Terracing  and  Land  Drainage. — Students  should  take 
leveling  instruments  from  the  school  to  farms  where  the  owners 
wish  to  establish  terraces  or  install  drainage  systems.  After  the 
preliminary  surveys  have  been  made  and  the  owner  and  school 
have  agreed  on  the  plans,  the  farmer  may  be  advised  regarding 


394  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  COMMUNITY  WORK 

the  details  of  procedure.  The  members  of  the  class  may  or  may  not 
take  part  in  the  future  steps.  They  should,  however,  be  expected  to 
watch  the  work  as  it  progresses.  If  the  work  in  terracing  is  not  satis- 
factory, they  should  do  some  work  that  will  serve  as  a  good  example. 

The  steps  in  drainage  should  be  followed  closely.  After  the 
ditch  is  dug  students  should  verify  closely  the  grades  of  the  bottom 
of  the  ditch  before  tile  is  laid.  Members  of  the  class  and  owner 
should  have  practice  in  laying  tile  carefully.  The  installing  of 
sediment  basins,  the  structure  of  branches,  the  starting  of  heads 
and  finishing  of  outlets  are  important  elements  for  practice. 

Lessons  with  Soils  and  Tillage  of  Soils. — Members  of  the  class 
or  all  of  them  in  company  with  the  instructor  should  visit  farms 
at  various  times  and  may  give  a  number  of  important  lessons  to 
people  of  the  community  regarding  soils  and  their  management. 
Teach  how  to  detect  the  amount  of  humus,  amount  of  moisture, 
proportion  of  sand  and  clay,  and  how  to  take  soil  samples.  Demon- 
strations should  be  given  on  farms  of  implements  which  are  not 
commonly  in  use  in  the  region — new  forms  of  rollers,  new  forms 
of  cultivators,  new  kinds  of  diggers  and  planters;  use  of  tractors, 
the  importance  of  harrowing  after  use  of  smooth  rollers,  the  use 
of  subsoiling  plows,  and  any  others  that  become  available. 

Community  Work  in  Farm  Mechanics. — When  students  have 
learned  some  of  the  special  lessons  in  farm  mechanics  necessary 
for  certain  farm  projects,  they  may  be  able  to  find  suitable  farms 
for  trying  their  hands  under  the  guidance  of  a  good  instructor. 
The  following  fields  of  work  are  suggested  from  which  selection 
may  be  made:  Install  water-pressure  systems.  Install  pumping 
fixtures.  Build  septic  tanks  and  install  sewerage  systems.  Install 
farm  lighting  systems.  Install  stationary  engines  and  machinery 
and  shafting.  Make  concrete  walks,  or  floors,  or  do  other  concrete 
work.  Help  frame  farm  structures  and  oversee  the  other  steps 
in  the  building.  Install  modern  fences  and  improved  gates. 

Give  demonstrations  in  use  of  road  drags.  Give  object  lessons 
to  farmers  in  rope  splicing.  Students  may  build  bird  houses  and 
erect  them  about  their  homes  or  about  the  homes  of  willing  neigh- 
bors. They  should  have  practice  in  painting  buildings  and  in 
whitewashing  others.  A  few  such  lessons  on  badly  run  down  farms 
may  induce  owners  to  improve  their  premises  in  other  ways  and 
thus  the  whole  neighborhood  will  be  benefited. 

Cooperation  with  Other  Schools. — County  high  schools  and 
village  or  city  schools  with  agricultural  departments  should  cooper- 


COMMUNITY  FAIRS 


3U5 


ate  with  smaller  schools  in  the  region  for  the  teaching  of  agriculture. 
In  some  cases  the  instructor  of  agriculture  is  employed  to  give  a 
part  of  his  time  each  week  or  each  month  in  instructing  the  teachers 
of  smaller  schools  in  special  subjects,  such  as  gardening,  dairying, 
and  poultry  raising.  By  this  means  the  teachers  so  instructed 
are  able  to  conduct  suitable  exercises  in  their  own  schools.  Suit- 
able bulletins  may  be  furnished  to  these  teachers. 

Plansfor  the  beautifying  of  rural  school  grounds  may  be  made  for 


FIG.   210. — School  exhibits   of  agricultural   products  may  ho  supplemented   by  shop  work, 

maps,  pictures,  charts,  plant  specimens,  insect  collections,  and  rut  flowers.     (School  Cordon 

Association  of  America.) 

each  of  the  schools  by  students  in  high  school  departments.  The 
teachers  should  then  be  instructed  how  to  secure  the  plants  and  how 
to  plant  them  according  to  the  plans  furnished.  These  plans  should 
be  framed  and  kept  in  the  rural  schools  for  future  guidance  of  all. 

Kits  of  simple  apparatus  are  sometimes  put  up  by  the  central 
school  for  use  in  the  other  schools.  Specimens  for  practice  in 
judging  grains,  grasses,  and  corn  may  likewise  be  provided  by 
the  agricultural  department  from  its  farm  or  land  laboratory. 

Community  Fairs. — At  least  once  a  year  all  agricultural  dis- 
tricts should  hold  a  good  community  fair.  The  school  should  take 
an  active  part  in  this,  and  perhaps  the  instructor  of  agriculture 


396 

should  be  the  main  leader  in  starting  the  movement  for  a  good 
fair.  A  few  discussions  may  be  started  among  the  students  regard- 
ing the  value  of  such  fairs,  materials  for  them,  suitable  places, 
premium  lists  and  premiums. 

This  early  discussion  should  be  followed  by  the  calling  of  a 
few  community  leaders  together,  or  by  having  the  subject  dis- 
cussed by  them  or  by  students  at  a  regular  meeting  of  some  com- 
munity club.  Committees  may  be  appointed  by  this  club  or  by 
the  special  meeting  to  consider  each  of  the  foregoing  points  and 
report  at  a  future  meeting.  Later  these  same  committees  may  be 
appointed  to  raise  donations  for  premiums  or  make  plans  by  which 
premiums  may  be  raised.  Perhaps  a  charge  for  admission  to  the 
fair  will  provide  for  premiums.  In  some  cases  no  premiums  other 
than  ribbons  are  offered. 


L  .  \  ..-.-'•  aSHBMBHBMHi 

FIG.  217. — Thanksgiving  exhibit  by  students  in  vocational  acripulture,  held 
munity  church.     (G.  S.  Boggan,  Ark.) 

If  conditions  are  favorable  for  the  fair  at  the  school,  the  first 
fair  may  include  all  kinds  of  farm  products  (Figs.  216,  217,  and  218) 
except  the  large  livestock,  and  at  future  fairs  include  these  also. 
Judging  of  products  at  community  fairs  should  be  unofficially 
done  by  all  students  studying  agriculture.  This  gives  them  good 
practice  which  cannot  be  easily  secured  in  the  same  length  of 
time  elsewhere.  The  official  judging,  however,  should  be  in  charge 
of  some  competent  judge  engaged  for  the  purpose  from  another 
school  or  from  another  community.  Use  the  fair  in  trying  to 
standardize  the  leading  varieties  of  important  crops  (Fig.  219). 

Instruction  Booths  at  Community  and  County  Fairs. — The  de- 
partment of  agriculture  of  the  school  should  see  to  it  that  several 
or  many  booths  are  installed  at  community  fairs,  county  fairs, 


INSTRUCTION  BOOTHS  AT  FAIRS 


397 


and  perhaps  at  state  fairs  where  agricultural  operations  of  many 
kinds  are  continually  carried  on  during  the  day  or  days  of  the 


Fio.   218. — At  fairs,  the  products  should  be  cl.msified  according  to  the  premium  list.     Have 
superintendents  appointed  who  will  classify  the  exhibits  as  they  are  brought  to  the  fair. 

(G.  S.  Ellis,  Minn.) 

fair  (Figs.  220  and  221).     A  few  of  tho  activities  for  such  booths 
are  mentioned  here: 

1.  Have  some  one  testing  milk  and  milk  products,  and  decorate  the  lxx>th 
with  dairy  charts,  dairy  pictures,  and  dairy  equipment. 


398  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  COMMUNITY  WORK 

2.  Have  a  booth  for  the  making  of  spray  materials;  decorate  with  fruit 
charts,  colored  pictures,  specimens  of  insects  and  disease  work. 

3.  Have  a  feeds  booth.     Have  feeds  mixed  at  certain  hours  for  poultry, 
dairy  cows,  dairy  calves,  and  other  animals.    Decorate  with  samples  of  feeds, 
feed  charts,  including  both  concentrates  and  roughage. 

4.  Have  a  honey  booth  with  some  one  extracting  honey  at  particular 
hours.    Decorate  with  samples  of  extracted  honey,  comb  honey,  bee  diseases, 
bees'  wax,  foundation,  and  bee  equipment.    Have  hives  of  bees  in  glass  frames. 

5.  Have  another  booth  showing  the  grafting  and  budding  of  trees.    Deco- 
rate with  charts  and  pictures  of  nursery  work  and  home  orchards. 

6.  A  booth  should  be  occupied  with  one  or  two  persons  wrapping  and 
packing  apples  in  boxes.    A  grading  and  sorting  table  may  be  in  the  booth. 
Decorate  with  large  pictures  showing  different  styles  of  packing,  and  with 
charts  showing  market  grades,  and  market  prices. 

7.  Have  one  booth  devoted  to  legumes.    Show  specimens,  pictures,  and 
charts  of  all  the  leading  legumes  suited  to  the  region.     Have  specimens  of 
lime  of  different  kinds.    Have  charts  calling  attention  to  the  benefits  of  legumes, 
and  others  showing  steps  in  establishing  certain  crops.    Let  some  one  in  the 
booth  be  treating  legume  seeds  and  soils  to  inoculate  with  bacteria.    Specimens 
of  roots  in  large  glass  bottles  in  two  per  cent  formalin  water  should  show 
nodules  of  many  kinds  of  legumes. 

8.  A  seed-testing  booth  may  show  the  steps  in  testing  seeds  by  different 
methods,  including  corn  testing  as  well  as  other  kinds  of  seeds.    A  few  charts 
should  call  attention  to  the  benefits  of  testing,  to  the  money  saved,  and  to 
the  cost.     Decorate  with  many  pictures  of  successful  farms.     Seed  selection 
and  seed  treating  may  be  included  here  or  shown  separately. 

9.  A  poultry  booth  may  have  some  one  calling  attention  to  the  methods 
of  culling  laying  hens  to  get  rid  of  the  drones.    Another  person  may  be  candling 
eggs  and  showing  people  how  to  do  it.    Have  in  the  booth  grades  of  eggs  nicely 
arranged  in  market  cartons.  Show  methods  of  packing  eggs,  kinds  of  egg  cases. 
Have  a  chart  showing  how  to  feed  for  egg  production;  another  on  producing 
infertile  eggs,  and  others  on  the  importance  of  egg  production. 

10.  If  desired,  another  poultry  booth  may  have  chicks  with  an  attendant 
showing  how  to  successfully  raise  incubator  chicks.     Line  the  booth  with 
charts  giving  directions  for  feeding,  temperature,  increase  in  weights,  compari- 
son of  breeds,  and  numbers  raised  by  artificial  and  natural  methods. 

Harvest  Picnics  or  Fall  Festivals. — In  the  latter  part  of  the 
summer  or  early  fall,  farming  communities  should  hold  picnics, 
and  have  programs  suited  to  their  vocation.  Agricultural  plays 
may  be  presented  by  young  people.2  Demonstrations  may  be 
given  on  making  lime-sulfur,  making  Bordeaux  mixture,  making 
dry  mash  for  poultry,  and  doing  many  other  agricultural 
things  which  would  be  of  interest  to  all.  Let  ten  or  twenty  of 
these  things  be  definitely  planned  and  practiced  by  students,  or 
others  assigned  to  the  topics.  This  kind  of  program  will  interest 
the  people  much  more  than  political  speeches  or  other  set  speeches 
from  a  platform. 

2  A  few  agricultural  plays  have  been  issued  as  Minn.  Ext.  Bulletins.  Write 
to  the  U.  S.  Bu.  of  Ed.  for  gardening  play. 


GRADUATING  KXEHC1SKS  OF  STUDKXTS 
iHWHtSOTASglOHT  5TAHWPO VABUT1ES 


3'J'J 


Ki<;.  Jli*. — Tho  instructor  in  agriculture,  thmueh  tlic  fairs  and  the  work  of  his  stuilrnts, 
should  standardize  the  products  of  the  region.  Here  are  eipht  standard  varieties  selecteil 
from  the  local  fair  according  to  variety  characteristics  Left  column:  Early  Ohio.  Triumph. 
Russet,  Green  Mountain.  Right  column:  Kinjj,  Cobbler,  Hurbank,  Rural  New  Yorker 

(B.  M.  Giles,  Minn.. 

Graduating  Exercises  of  Students  in  Agriculture. — Thore  arc 
many  practical  and  useful  topics  which  would  interest  the  people 


400 


HOW  TO  CONDUCT  COMMUNITY  WORK 


who  attend  commencement  exercises  in  rural  districts  or  in  cities 
supported  largely  by  the  surrounding  farms.  Let  students  grad- 
uating from  the  agricultural  department  take  part  in  the  graduat- 
ing exercises.  Each  student  may  be  allowed  to  use  five  or  ten 


220. — Agricultural  exhibit  at  county  fair.    The  course  of  study  is  given  a  conspicuous 
place.     (Wm.  C.  Brown.) 


Fio.  221. — Models  of  schools  make  good  features  at  fairs.     Left,  the  background  of  the 

exhibit  is  a  reproduction  of  the  front  of  the  school  building,  and  a  silver  cup  was  awarded. 

(H.  N.  Loomis,  Mass.)     Right,  model  of  the  grounds  and  buildings  of  consolidated  school, 

awarded  a  prize  at  the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition.     (Fred  Grafelman.) 

minutes  for  the  presentation  of  one  topic  well  prepared  in  ad- 
vance. He  should  have  the  necessary  apparatus  and  illustrative 
material  to  make  a  brief  demonstration  showing  a  valuable 
lesson  in  agriculture.  His  discussion  should  be  informal  after 
careful  preparation. 


TOPICS  FOR  COMMENCEMENT  EXERCISES 


401 


A  feature  of  the  closing  week  may  1x3  a  school  play*  or  a 
school  pageant  (Fig.  222). 

Topics  for  Agricultural  Commencement  Exercises.— The  topics 


Fio.   222. — "The  old  and  the  new"  in  agriculture  and  homo  life  nmy  be  used  a»  a  street 
pageant  on  commencement  day.     The  above  are  two  glimpses  of  "the  old" — the  old-fash- 
ioned wooden  hay  rake,  and  the  ox  team  followed  bv  the  hand  cradle  for  cutting  wheat. 
(Angeline  Wood,  Alfred,  X.  Y.) 

suggested  here  are  taken  from  programs  which  have  been  rendered 
on  such  occasions  by  high  school  graduates. 

1.  The  making  of  "Self-boiled  Lime-sulfur."    The  student  may  have  the 
lime,  sulfur,  water,  and  necessary  utensils.    He  should  start  the  lime  to  slacking 
iust  before  he  is  called  upon  for  his  part  of  the  program.     This  is  brought  in 
by  an  assistant.     Then  he  takes  the  sulfur,  making  his  discussion  as  he  goes 
along.     He  may  tell  something  of  the  uses  of  lime-sulfur  and  how  much  Ls 
saved  by  making  the  material  at  home. 

2.  "Making  Bordeaux  Mixture."     The  student  may  start  with  the  two 
stock  solutions,  lime  and  blue  vitriol.    He  may  show  how  to  dilute  each  of  the 

3  Write  to  Univ.  of  Minn.,  Ext.  Div.,  for  play  "  Hack  to  the  Farm";  to  Cor- 
nell Univ.  for  Lesson  153,  Country  IJfe  Series;  and  to  N.  D.  A,?r.  College  for 
"Public  Programs,"  No.  122. 
26 


402  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  COMMUNITY  WORK 

stock  solutions  and  then  call  on  an  assistant  to  help  pour  these  together  into 
a  third  vessel,  explaining  as  this  is  done.  If  glass  vessels  are  used,  the  resulting 
color  will  show  nicely  throughout  a  large  audience.  He  should  explain  how 
the  stock  solutions  are  made,  and  how  they  may  be  kept  for  a  long  period 
ready  for  use  when  the  Bordeaux  is  needed.  The  uses  of  the  mixture  may  also 
be  included  in  his  topic. 

3.  "The  Home  Mixing  of  Fertilizers."     The  student  should  give  prices 
of  several  materials  which  he  has  presented,  such  as  acid  phosphate,  nitrate  of 
soda,  and  sulfate  of  potash.    He  should  show  the  formula  which  he  is  striving 
to  obtain  and  how  much  material  of  each  of  these  kinds  is  required  in  the 
mixture  to  make  this  formula.    He  should  actually  mix  the  ingredients  together 
on  a  large  tray  prepared  for  this  purpose  on  the  floor.    This  may  be  carried 
away  after  his  number.     Let  him  give  the  arguments  in  favor  of  the  home 
mixing  of  fertilizers. 

4.  "A  Lesson  in  Culling  Poultry."    Have  a  number  of  hens  in  a  coop  ready 
for  this  exercise.  As  the  points  in  the  culling  card  are  enumerated  by  the  stu- 
dent, he  may  handle  the  birds  and  explain  each  point  briefly.    If  time  is  limited, 
let  only  the  chief  points  be  considered. 

5.  "The  Production  of  Sterile  Eggs."    Let  the  student  have  a  number  of 
eggs  present  and  show  how  they  are  candled.    He  may  call  attention  to  eggs 
which  have  developed  the  embryo  after  several  days  in  hot  weather.     He 
should  explain  the  appearance  of  each  and  the  effects  of  such  germs  dying  or 
growing  in  the  egg.     He  may  give  results  of  trials  showing  that  hens  lay  as 
many  sterile  eggs  as  they  would  if  fertile.    He  should  tell  what  the  losses  are 
from  fertile  eggs  and  show  the  saving  to  farmers  by  selling  or  killing  the  roosters 
in  their  flocks  after  the  breeding  season. 

6.  "The  Judging  of  Poultry."    Let  one  or  more  birds  of  the  same  or  differ- 
ent breeds  be  judged  before  the  audience  according  to  the  standard  score  card. 

7.  "Treating  Oats  for  Smut."    Have  a  peck  or  so  of  oats  and  let  them  be 
treated  with  formalin  solution  in  the  presence  of  the  audience.    Explanation 
should  be  given  of  the  benefits,  variation  in  methods,  and  cost. 

8.  "Treating  Potatoes  to  Prevent  Scab."     Use  the  corrosive  sublimate 
or  formalin  method  and  give  the  benefits.    He  should  show  scabby  potatoes 
and  tell  of  the  serious  losses  from  this  disease. 

9.  "Selecting  Seed  Corn."    Let  a  bushel  or  more  of  ears  be  ready  for  use 
in  this  exercise.    The  student  may  sort  them  over  and  pick  out  the  best  from 
the  lot.    He  may  explain  the  importance  of  selecting  the  corn  in  the  field  and 
the  importance  of  sorting  it  well  afterwards.    Then  let  him  run  over  rapidly 
all  points  considered  in  selecting  the  best. 

10.  "Seed  Testing."     This  exercise  may  be  confined  to  testing  by  the 
rag-doll  method,  the  sawdust  box,  or  any  other  method.     There  should  be 
several  lots  of  seeds  showing  different  stages  in  the  method.     He  may  go 
through  the  process  of  putting  seeds  into  the  tester;  then  another  lot  to  show 
the  tester  in  the  middle  stage  of  its  running;  then  another  lot  to  show  the  final 
results  of  the  test.     The  advantages  of  testing  may  be  mentioned. 

11.  "Treating  Chickens  for  Lice." 

12.  "Feeding  Baby  Chicks." 

13.  "Running  an  Incubator." 

14.  "Testing  Eggs  in  an  Incubator." 

15.  "Plumping  Dressed  Broilers  or  Fowls  for  Market." 

16.  "Packing  Dressed  Poultry  in  Boxes  for  Market." 

17.  "Sorting  and  Packing  Apples  or  Peaches  for  Market." 

18.  "Wrapping  and  Packing  Apples  in  Boxes." 

19.  "Grafting  and  Budding  of  Fruit  Trees." 

20.  "Making  Grafting  Wax." 

21.  "Judging  the  Ages  of  Horses." 


ORGANIZING  FOR  FARMERS'  INSTITUTE  WORK          40.3 

22.  'Testing  of  Milk." 

23.  'Pruning  Young  Fruit  Trees." 

24.  'A  Lesson  in  Pruning  Old  Trees." 

25.  'Liming  of  Soils." 

2fi.    'Inoculation  of  Legume  Seeds." 
27.    'The  Feet  of  n  Horse." 

Farmers'  Institutes. — Local  farmers'  meetings  and  perhaps 
those  of  more  general  scope  should  be  planned  by  the  agricultural 
department  in  high  schools,  consolidated  schools,  and  by  local 
rural  schools.  Probably  the  least  that  can  be  expected  from  even 
the  smaller  rural  schools  is  to  have  a  few  farmers'  meetings  planned 
for  the  winter  season. 

High  schools  should  plan  to  hold  a  number  of  community 
meetings  in  different  neighborhoods  of  the  region.  These  may  l>e 
planned  to  run  through  the  winter,  if  not  throughout  the  year. 
Programs  for  these  meetings  should  be  planned  by  the  agricultural 
school  working  in  unison  with  committee  members  in  each  of 
the  communities. 

Organizing  for  Farmers'  Institute  Work. — Let  each  of  the 
communities  be  organized  into  a  community  club,  Chautauqua 
Associations,  or  any  name  which  they  may  desire  to  use.  Some- 
times these  are  branches  of  local  units,  of  state  granges,  or  of 
farmers'  unions. 

The  agricultural  teacher  and  his  students  should  work  among 
these  neighborhood  organizations.  They  may  appear  on  the  pro- 
gram from  time  to  time,  but  most  of  the  work  on  the  program 
should  be  by  the  local  people  themselves.  Endeavor  to  teach 
people  how  to  conduct  their  own  programs  without  assistance 
from  the  school.  Do  not  allow  them  to  make  up  programs  of  long 
set  speeches.  It  is  better  to  have  the  programs  filled  with  discus- 
sions in  the  form  of  round  tables.  Have  demonstrations  given  by 
farmers  who  can  show  how  they  have  done  certain  things.  Try 
to  discover  people  in  the  region  who  can  tell  how  they  have  done 
certain  things  on  their  farms.  These  may  be  placed  on  programs 
in  other  communities  until  they  make  the  rounds.  For  example, 
if  one  man  is  successful  in  growing  strawberries  by  a  certain 
method,  let  him  explain  to  one  of  the  communities  how  he  does  it. 
The  instructor  may  question  him  and  bring  out  many  points  in 
the  discussion  which  would  otherwise  be  omitted  and  will  incident- 
ally be  coaching  him  for  a  better  presentation  next  time.  This 
member  will  later  appear  on  other  community  programs  with  the 
same  subject.  Another  farmer  may  have  been  very  successful  in 


404  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  COMMUNITY  WORK 

the  management  of  market  garden  crops,  and  is  induced  to  appear 
on  one  or  more  programs  of  the  winter. 

The  writer  has  coached  many  farmers  to  prepare  some  one 
topic  very  well  and  present  it  at  local  farmers'  institutes.  Bulletins 
were  placed  in  their  hands  to  aid  them  in  formulating  their  thoughts 
on  the  subject  with  which  they  had  had  much  experience.  The 
people  are  always  better  satisfied  with  talks  and  demonstrations 
by  real  farmers  than  they  are  with  discussions  from  others.  Six 
or  eight  topics  presented  by  as  many  good  farmers,  and  each  taken 
to  a  number  of  neighborhoods  will  make  a  good  winter's  program 
for  a  whole  county. 

Rural  Leadership. — Each  of  the  farmers  who  has  been  trained 
as  were  those  before  described  will  become  a  community  leader. 
He  has  been  made  to  face  audiences  enough  to  be  willing  to  speak 
to  his  own  people.  He  has  seen  the  backward  characteristics  of 
people  in  other  communities  and  will  try  to  meet  such  defects. 
He  may  be  willing  to  aid  in  bringing  out  other  neighbors  who 
have  succeeded  in  certain  kinds  of  farming. 

Let  students  of  the  school  be  induced  to  select  suitable  leaders 
from  the  community.  They  can  also  by  questioning  help  to  de- 
velop certain  topics  in  the  minds  of  men  who  have  made  successes 
in  other  farm  operations.  In  other  words,  they  may  help  train 
local  speakers  by  showing  them  that  they  know  enough  to  present 
their  methods  of  doing  things.  They  can  put  the  proper  bulletins 
into  the  hands  of  those  who  are  to  appear  on  the  programs.  They 
can  act  on  program  committees.  They  can  be  taught  to  run 
lantern  slides  or  moving  picture  machines  for  use  in  their  own 
neighborhood  and  in  others. 

Short  Courses  at  Agricultural  Schools. — High  school  depart- 
ments of  agriculture  or  special  agricultural  schools  should  from 
time  to  time,  or  at  regular  intervals,  plan  and  announce  short 
courses  for  farmers  of  the  region.  These  short  courses  may  be 
devoted  to  special  topics,  as:  (1)  Poultry,  (2)  gardening,  (3)  fruit 
growing,  (4)  dairying,  (5)  bee-keeping,  (6)  apple  packing,  (7)  field 
crops,  (8)  corn,  (9)  potatoes,  (10)  swine,  (11)  beef  production, 
(12)  sheep. 

The  length  of  such  short  courses  varies  from  one  week  to  several 
weeks.  One  of  the  chief  factors  in  determining  the  length  of  any 
short  course  is  the  amount  of  assistance  which  the  instructor  is 
able  to  secure  for  the  work.  He  may  in  some  cases  be  able  to  use 
farmers  of  the  region  or  from  other  sections  of  the  state  or  county, 


COOPERATIVE  FARMERS'  ORGANIZATION'  405 

with  or  without  compensation.  Specialists  from  colleges  and  de- 
partments of  agriculture  elsewhere  are  sometimes  engaged.  His 
own  students  are  often  used  in  giving  special  demonstrations,  as 
in  judging  corn,  making  spray  mixtures,  mixing  f(Kjds  and  forti- 
lizers,  and  culling  and  judging  stock.  If  students  are  used  in  such 
exercises  during  the  week  or  two,  while  the  short  course  is  in  prog- 
ress, they  may  gain  sufficient  training  to  amply  compensate  for  loss 
of  class  work  during  the  time. 

Read  again  the  suggestions  regarding  short-course  work  in 
Chapters  V  to  XII. 

Boys'  Agricultural  Camps. — During  the  summer  season  some 
agricultural  departments  and  schools  have  conducted  boys'  camps 
at  appropriate  places  in  their  counties.  The  encampments  are 
made  for  a  few  days  or  for  a  week  or  two  at  a  time.  Certain  hours 
of  the  day  are  set  for  reports  and  accounts  of  the  project  work  of 
the  students.  Prospective  students  are  invited  to  participate  in 
the  encampment.  If  the  time  is  near  the  end  of  the  vacation 
season,  results  of  projects  may  be  given.  Much  of  the  time  at 
the  encampment  is  used  in  recreation,  contests,  games,  story 
telling,  reading,  and  other  entertainment.  Perhaps  the  environ- 
ment will  furnish  some  opportunity  for  swimming,  fishing,  and 
other  water  sports.  In  many  cases  such  encampments  are  held 
on  the  grounds  of  the  local  fair  association,  or  in  public  parks,  or 
in  picnic  groves,  or  on  the  private  grounds  of  some  fanner. 

The  Boy  Scout  spirit  should  pervade  all  the  elements  which 
go  to  make  up  a  successful  boys'  agricultural  camp  meeting.  Read 
over  requirements  for  Boy  Scout  work,  the  pledge,  and  the  stand- 
ard. Then  try  to  maintain  this  high  ideal.  If  the  right  spirit  is 
not  secured,  the  boys'  camp  may  be  worse  than  useless.  Good 
leadership  counts  for  much  in  their  success. 

Cooperative  Farmers' Organizations. — Instructors  in  agriculture 
often  find  it  their  duty  to  outline  plans  for  cooperative  endeavor 
among  farmers.  They  should  be  able  to  explain  the  advantages 
of  such  organizations  for  various  enterprises.  They  should  also 
be  able  to  point  out  the  dangers  which  will  confront  them.  They 
should  be  able  to  formulate  plans;  tell  how  various  organizations 
have  proceeded;  tell  how  capital  is  apportioned  among  members; 
give  constitution  and  by-laws;  describe  duties  of  certain  officials 
and  explain  the  division  of  responsibility.  Students  preparing  to 
lead  farmers  in  such  matt  el's  should  read  accounts  of  the  work  of 
cooperative  organizations  of  other  kinds.  They  should  visit  as 


406  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  COMMUNITY  WORK 

many  of  these  as  possible  and  consult  with  officials  regarding  the 
details  of  their  work.  They  should  send  for  copies  of  constitutions 
and  by-laws.  They  should  study  both  successes  and  failures. 

Among  the  cooperative  enterprises  of  farmers  should  be  men- 
tioned butter  factories,  milk  depots,  cheese  factories,  potato 
marketing,  fruit  marketing,  onion  and  other  produce  marketing, 
nut  marketing,  laundries,  ice  plants,  lighting  plants,  bakeries, 
marketing  of  poultry  products,  ownership  of  pure-bred  sires  of 
any  class  of  animals,  ownership  of  farm  engines  or  other  machinery, 
purchasing  coal,  seed,  tools,  feed,  and  household  supplies. 

Farm  Demonstrations. — The  agricultural  departments  of  schools 
often  conduct  farm  demonstrations  on  farms  of  the  region.  These 
demonstrations  may  consist  of  growing  some  new  crop  as  it  should 
be  grown,  growing  some  old  crop  in  a  better  way,  the  feeding  or 
care  of  animals  more  successfully,  the  maintenance  of  a  dirt  road, 
the  improvement  of  a  farm,  or  any  other  activity  which  falls 
within  the  scope  of  the  school  work.  Such  demonstrations  may 
be  given  on  the  farms  of  students  who  attend  the  school  or  upon 
other  farms  which  the  instructor  can  easily  visit  while  on  his 
trips  doing  other  work  in  the  community. 

Agricultural  demonstration  work  is  so  well  known  that  its 
benefits  need  not  be  mentioned  here.  Community  meetings  should 
be  called  to  visit  the  farms  where  these  demonstrations  are  con- 
ducted. These  meetings  may  be  held  either  during  the  progress 
of  the  demonstration  or  near  its  close.  Some  special  inducement 
should  be  suggested  when  neighbors  are  called  to  such  meetings. 
The  call  should  be  worded  carefully.  Perhaps  some  product  of 
the  demonstration  may  be  offered  to  each  visitor — samples  of 
seed,  samples  of  tubers,  samples  of  hay  or  other  crops.  Refresh- 
ments may  be  offered  or  a  community  picnic  may  be  held  at  the 
place.  An  attractive  program  may  induce  them  to  come. 

Agricultural  Campaigns  in  the  Region. — Recently  the  Ameri- 
can people  have  learned  to  accomplish  many  things  by  brief  intense 
public  movements.  The  agricultural  instructor  may  find  it  pos- 
sible to  succeed  in  starting  reforms  among  the  farmers  of  his  region 
by  selecting  a  few  features  and  making  campaigns  on  these  until 
all  farmers  have  learned  the  new  methods  involved  and  perhaps 
have  succeeded  well  with  them.  A  few  that  have  been  used  by 
agricultural  teachers  are  here  mentioned. 

In  a  dairy  region  each  dairyman  was  induced  to  grow  two 
acres  or  more  of  alfalfa.  A  better  seed  corn  campaign  reformed 


REASONS  FOR  USING  THE  PRESS  407 

the  corn  growing  of  one  district.  Every  fanner  was  induced  to 
try  better  seed  corn  on  all  or  part  of  his  field.  A  liming  campaign 
became  very  popular  in  a  region  where  clover  growing  had  lx*come 
nearly  extinct.  In  a  number  of  cases  milk-increase  has  taen  the 
slogan  among  dairy  farmers.  They  have  in  many  cases  formed 
cooperative  creameries.  Peach  planting  and  apple  planting  cam- 
paigns have  been  organized  with  great  success.  Cooperative  fruit 
growers'  associations  often  help  in  such  campaigns. 

In  a  number  of  counties  campaigns  have  been  pushed  for  the 
growing  of  pure-bred  poultry.  These  are  often  started  among 
children  of  rural  schools,  and  then  are  taken  up  by  older  people. 
"Better  brood  mares  and  more  brood  mares"  formed  the  slogan 
in  regions  where  farmers  were  formerly  buying  their  work  horses 
from  outside.  Better  beef  sires  have  been  introduced  in  a  numlxT 
of  regions  through  the  organization  of  farmers  for  that  purpose. 
"Better  dairy  heifers"  is  a  good  slogan  to  help  induce  dairymen 
to  use  better  sires.  Agricultural  instructors  should  plan  campaigns 
to  suit  the  region.  In  addition  to  those  already  suggested  a  few 
others  are  proposed:  A  trial  of  cross  harrowing  of  corn  on  every 
farm;  field  selection  of  seed  by  every  grower  of  cotton,  corn,  or 
other  important  field  crop;  a  septic  tank  on  at  least  one  farm  of 
every  neighborhood;  modern  water  systems  on  ten  farms;  a  pure- 
bred boar  available  to  every  farm;  oetter  marketing  of  farm  prod- 
ucts of  all  kinds.  Leaders  of  such  movements  should  enlist  the 
aid  of  local  organizations  and  of  special  committees. 

The  Use  of  the  Press.4 — Schools  teaching  agriculture  should 
make  good  use  of  the  local  press  of  the  region.  Newspapers  that 
circulate  among  fanners  should  devote  considerable  space  each 
issue  to  agricultural  topics.  The  school  can  aid  materially  in 
supplying  suitable  matter  for  publication  in  local  papers,  in  large 
dailies  of  the  nearest  cities  which  often  have  agricultural  depart- 
ments. The  school  can  make  the  preparation  of  articles  for  publi- 
cation a  part  of  the  school  work. 

Reasons  for  Using  the  Press. — Any  teacher  of  agriculture 
should  study  his  local  conditions  and  see  if  any  of  the  following 
reasons  or  others  can  appty.  If  he  can  find  a  good  reason  for 
making  use  of  the  local  press,  he  should  go  to  the  publisher  or 
editor  of  one  or  more  of  the  papers  in  his  locality  or  those  in  near 
by  places.  Give  them  arguments  for  using  agricultural  matter 
from  time  to  time.  If  the  editor  is  willing  to  use  suitable  material. 

4  See  also  Chapter  XVI,  p.  332. 


408  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  COMMUNITY  WORK 

the  school  should  offer  to  help  supply  it.     Among  the  reasons 
which  may  be  in  the  teacher's  mind  are  the  following: 

1.  Articles  regarding  modern  agriculture  will  always  help  fanners  to  be 
more  interested  and  more  successful  in  their  work. 

2.  Information  regarding  special  operations  which  ought  to  be  carried  on 
by  the  farmers  of  the  region  can  be  brought  to  their  attention  through  the 
press,  particularly  if  farmers  get  in  the  habit  of  looking  to  the  press  for  agri- 
cultural suggestions.     These  may  be  seasonal  suggestions,  as  the  starting  of 
hotbeds,  the  protection  of  fruit  blossoms  from  frost,  the  culling  of  the  pullets 
for  future  laying  flocks,  the  preparation  of  winter  quarters  for  laying  hens, 
the  breeding  season  for  hot-house  lambs. 

3.  Agricultural  campaigns  of  various  kinds  can  be  conducted  much  better 
by  the  use  of  the  press. 

4.  The  accomplishments  of  cooperative  efforts  are  more  successful  if  the 
press  aids  in  conducting  them.     For  example,  more  fanners  can  be  induced 
to  raise  certain  crops  if  they  are  assured  of  a  fine  market  for  these  crops  before 
they  are  planted.    The  promotion  of  canneries  and  the  growing  of  crops  for 
such  canneries  is  an  example  of  this. 

5.  The  promotion  of  cooperative  associations  for  marketing  various  kinds 
of  farm  products  is  more  easily  accomplished  when  much  publicity  is  given 
the  movement. 

6.  The  school  work  which   should  be  one  of  the  leading  endeavors  of 
any  community  may  be  kept  in  the  minds  of  the  people  better  by  the  use  of 
the  press. 

7.  The  successes  of  individual  farmers  who  have  been  progressive  in  special 
types  of  farming  may  be  spread  to  other  farms  of  the  region  by  means  of 
such  publicity. 

8.  The  demonstrations  conducted  on  farms  of  the  region  may  be  an- 
nounced and  kept  in  the  minds  of  the  public  so  that  they  will  more  closely 
watch  the  progress  and  results  of  the  work. 

9.  The  successful  home  projects  of  individual  students  should  be  given 
publicity. 

10.  Farmers  who  as  a  class  are  lonely  in  their  agricultural  thought  are 
induced  to  read  much  more  agricultural  matter  if  it  is  brought  to  them  regu- 
larly in  their  home  papers. 

11.  Farmers  are  induced  to  keep  in  touch  with  things  that  other  farmers 
are  doing. 

12.  They  get  new  ideas  of  up-to-date  methods. 

13.  If  publishers  run  agricultural  departments,  they  will  find  it  possible 
to  publish  also  reliable  advertisements  of  implements,  fertilizers,  feed,  stock, 
and  poultry. 

14.  Farmers  may  be  warned  against  fraudulent  schemes  of  unscrupulous 
agents. 

15.  The  papers  may  be  used  to  announce  agricultural  meetings,  stock 
fairs,  and  other  community  gatherings. 

16.  Fanners  may  get  reports  of  experiments  of  many  experiment  stations, 
and  will  learn  of  the  publication  of  new  bulletins  and  other  literature  for 
farmers. 

Kinds  of  Material  which  the  School  can  Furnish  the  Press. — In 
reading  over  the  foregoing  reasons  for  publishing  agricultural 
matter  in  the  press,  any  one  may  naturally  infer  what  kinds  of 
material  may  be  supplied  to  the  press  by  the  school.  It  may  be 


ILLUSTRATIONS  FOR  THE  PRESS  409 

worth  while  here  to  mention  a  number  of  the  most  important  kinds 
of  matter  which  the  school  can  easily  prepare;  for  publication. 

1.  Occasional  reports  of  experiments  or  demonstrations  conduct**!  by 
students  and  instructors  on  the  school  grounds  or  in  lalxmitory  work. 

2.  Announcements  of  programs  of  daily  work,   of  special   exercises,   of 
short  courses,  of  farmers'  institutes,  of  hoys  and  girls'  club  work,  of  programs 
of  literary  societies  in  school,  of  graduating  exercises  of  agricultural  classes. 

3.  Students  can  prepare  articles  on  special  topics  for  publication,  and  will 
do  it  better  than  if  they  are  to  be  consigned  to  a  waste-basket.    This  may  be 
for  credit  in  English  or  in  agriculture. 

4.  Complete  final  reports  of  projects  may  be  chosen  for  publication. 

5.  Finanacial  statements  showing  cost  of  production  in  home  projects. 

6.  The  best  reports  written  by  students  of  field  trips  or  visits  to  neigh- 
boring farms,  of  visits  to  packing  houses,  cold  storage  plants,  fertilizer  factories, 
feed  mills,  implement  establishments,  tractor  demonstrations. 

7.  Accounts  written  by  students  of  special  operations  on  their  farms,  as 
the  description  of  the  filling  of  a  silo,  including  the  detailed  items  of  cost. 
Another  example  would  be  an  account  of  the  methods  and  cost  of  harvesting 
a  crop  of  any  kind,  as  potatoes,  or  apples. 

8.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year,  let  a  complete  list  of  all  the  projects 
started  by  students  on  their  home  places  be  published. 

9.  From  time  to  time  give  a  report  of  the  progress  of  each  of  the  projects 
of  students. 

10.  Publish  lists  of  demonstrations  in  progress  on  farms  of   the  region,  if 
these  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  instructor  or  some  other  agent. 

11.  Call  attention  to  particular  new  crops  on  various  farms  so  that  others 
can  see  their  growth  and  learn  methods  of  producing  them. 

12.  The  school  may  serve  as  a  central  bureau  of   information  and   each 
student  may  write  items  of  interest   regarding  valuable  points  in   farming 
which  occur  on  their  own  farms  or  those  of  neighbors.     Thus  many  items  of 
local  interest  that  are  worthy  of  emulation  will  come  to  the  public  eye — the 
building  of  good  barns,  the  improvement  of  home  grounds,  the  starting  of 
new  methods,  the  purchasing  of  pure-bred  cattle  or  other  livestock,  the  pro- 
duction of  more  dairy  products,  the  high  records  in  poultry  yards,  the  fine 
yields  of  certain  fields,  the  securing  of  better  prices  for  produce. 

13.  Students  and  instructors  may  write  reports  of  fairs,  giving  winners  of 
premiums   in   all   departments   of  agriculture.      Describe   booths.      Describe 
products  shown   at   fairs.      Make   lists  of  exhibits  in   various  departments. 
Praise  the  best  things  seen  there. 

Illustrations  for  the  Press.5 — The  instructor,  or  some  of  his 
students  with  a  camera,  may  obtain  many  valuable  illustrations 
from  the  farms  of  the  region  which  may  be  used  to  illustrate  the 
foregoing  matter.  Many  publishers  are  glad  to  make  use  of  illus- 
trations in  connection  with  the  matter  furnished  them.  Take 
pictures  of  operations  at  school  showing  the  work  of  students  in 
laboratories,  the  growing  of  crops,  or  the  practice  work  on  the  land 
laboratory  of  the  school.  When  the  class  is  taken  to  various  farms 
of  the  region  as  suggested  in  a  number  of  places  of  this  volume, 
photographs  may  be  taken  of  farm  operations,  of  valuable  stock. 

6  Sec  also  Chapter  XVI. 


410  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  COMMUNITY  WORK 

of  classes  in  various  exercises  on  these  farms,  of  good  silos,  barns, 
dairy  houses,  poultry  yards,  good  machinery  at  work,  good  roads, 
well-kept  yards,  and  many  other  views. 

Such  views  will  speak  louder  than  words.  Many  papers,  even 
tkose  of  a  local  nature,  often  circulate  widely  in  other  regions. 
The  pictures,  with  suitable  reading  matter  accompanying  them, 
will  attract  attention  to  agricultural  enterprises  at  home.  The 
whole  region  will  thus  be  benefited  by  the  use  of  good  pictures. 

In  connection  with  special  articles  and  some  of  the  other  matter 
furnished  for  publication,  students  may  prepare  charts  showing 
statistics  in  graphic  form.  They  may  make  drawings  of  simple 
buildings  showing  how  to  build  them.  Simple  farm  devices  and 
apparatus  may  be  easily  illustrated  by  simple  drawings.  The 
structure  of  septic  tanks,  the  installation  of  irrigation  systems,  the 
contour  line  in  field  terracing  all  furnish  subjects  for  drawings. 

Characteristics  of  Good  Newspaper  Articles. — It  is  important 
that  instructors  having  students  writing  matter  for  publication 
should  teach  them  to  remember  that  writings  are  to  be  scrutinized 
by  the  public  eye,  and  that  they  must  strive  to  be  as  perfect  as 
possible  in  expression  and  not  try  to  exhibit  characteristics  which 
would  be  open  to  criticism.  Let  the  following  points  be  kept 
uppermost  in  their  minds : 

Make  the  language  simple  and  plain  without  the  use  of  many 
unusual  terms.  In  the  choice  of  words,  use  the  short  simple  Anglo- 
Saxon  rather  than  long  or  complex  words. 

Avoid  long  complex  or  otherwise  involved  sentences.  Do  not 
cry  to  be  flowery.  Simple,  plain  statements  are  good  English. 

Make  short  paragraphs  rather  than  long  ones.  Let  each  idea 
be  expressed  briefly,  and  if  it  needs  repeating,  do  this  as  adroitly 
as  possible. 

Tell  many  things  to  the  reader  without  seeming  to  tell  anything. 
This  can  be  done  by  assuming  that  some  few  need  reminding  of 
certain  things  that  the  writer  states. 

Prepare  short  articles  rather  than  long  ones.  A  long  article 
often  fails  in  securing  many  readers. 

Never  prepare  articles  for  publication  on  agricultural  topics 
unless  they  are  suited  to  the  season,  or  have  some  seasonal  aspect. 
An  article  on  care  of  sheep  at  lambing  time  should  appear  before 
that  time  instead  of  after  it. 

Use  good  headings.  Always  write  the  headings  instead  of 
leaving  it  for  the  editor  to  do.  Study  the  style  of  the  type  used 


HIGH-SCHOOL  PUBLICATIONS  411 

by  the  paper  which  is  to  publish  the  article.  Use  the  projier  under- 
lines of  the  headings  to  show  the  style  you  expect  to  have  used. 
If  the  paper  uses  center  headings  in  the  articles  for  sub-headings, 
follow  that  style  in  preparing  the  article.  If  side  headings  are 
printed  by  the  paper,  prepare  your  article  with  side;  headings 
instead  of  center  headings.  Use  a  number  of  these  Bub-headings 
for  the  different  paragraphs  or  some  of  them.  This  is  most  imjx)r- 
tant  for  the  longer  articles. 

When  students  prepare  important  articles  on  special  topics 
their  names  should  usually  be  published  with  them.  There  are 
two  styles  used  for  this.  See  which  of  these  is  usually  followed  by 
your  paper.  Is  the  name  of  the  writer  placed  under  the  main 
heading  of  the  article  or  is  it  placed  at  the  close  of  the  article? 
The  first  is  preferable  if  the  editor  will  allow  it. 

Never  allow  students  to  offer  for  publication  matter  which 
has  not  been  read  and  criticized  by  the  teacher  of  agriculture,  or 
the  teacher  of  English,  or  both. 

Avoid  silly  allusions  to  local  school  happenings  which  will 
not  be  understood  clearly  and  fully  by  the  public  at  large.  Avoid 
efforts  at  "smartness"  by  students  in  writing  for  the  public  press. 
Nothing  will  hurt  the  school  more  in  the  eyes  of  a  tax-paying 
public  than  this. 

School  Papers. — Colleges  of  agriculture,  and  perhaps  other 
colleges  having  agricultural  departments,  often  find  it  advisable 
to  publish  periodicals  of  an  agricultural  nature.  Much  of  what 
has  been  said  in  the  preceding  pages  applies  to  matter  in 
these  periodicals. 

There  are  two  types  of  such  school  or  college  publications 
found:  those  which  are  purely  of  an  educational  nature  and  con- 
tain no  advertising  material.  These  are  issued  under  the  act  of 
Congress  of  July  16,  1894.  They  must  be  published  at  least  four 
times  a  year,  and  are  not  required  to  have  a  list  of  paid  subscribers. 

The  other  form  of  publication  is  issued  under  the  law  governing 
newspapers  and  magazines.  They  contain  advertising  matter  and 
are  required  to  have  a  list  of  paid  subscribers. 

The  mailing  rates  for  these  publications  are  the  same,  i.e., 
one  cent  per  pound.  This  is  known  as  second-class  mail  matter. 
Regulations  regarding  either  of  these  types  of  publication  ma}'  lx> 
obtained  from  the  nearest  post-office. 

High  School  Publications. — When  high  schools  find  it  ini|w>s- 
sible  to  make  good  use  of  the  local  press  of  the  region  they  some- 


412  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  COMMUNITY  WORK 

times  start  school  periodicals.  These  are  sometimes  published  in 
mimeograph  form  and  distributed  to  the  students  and  their  fami- 
lies at  a  nominal  cost.  In  other  cases  they  are  printed  and  adver- 
tisements are  solicited  to  help  meet  the  expenses  of  publication. 
In  villages  and  small  cities  the  burden  upon  advertisers  is  usually 
a  heavy  one,  and  the  resulting  effect  among  business  men  is  not  a 
wholesome  one.  If  the  school  is  very  large  and  a  very  worthy  pub- 
lication is  issued  to  a  large  list  of  subscribers,  the  advertising  is 
really  worth  while  and  the  effect  of  issuing  the  paper  is  a  good  one. 
A  common  defect  of  high-school  papers  is  that  they  often  have 
unwholesome  and  objectionable  features  such  as  mean,  silly, 
or  opprobrious  allusions  to  students,  teachers,  occurrences  at 
school  or  in  the  community.  These  are  not  worthy  of  publica- 
tion. The  paper  in  printing  them  debases  itself  and  should  not 
continue  to  use  its  columns  for  such  trash.  Such  things  waste  the 
time  of  students  who  read  them  as  well  as  those  who  write  them. 
Another  common  objection  to  issuing  periodicals  managed  by 
high  school  students  is  that  they  are  required  to  use  much  of  their 
time  in  making  the  publication  pay  for  itself.  Committees  are 
required  to  solicit  subscriptions,  solicit  advertisements,  mail 
copies  to  subscribers,  and  maintain  departments  which  are  of 
little  use  in  the  field  of  agriculture  or  in  other  departments 
of  education. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  plan  for  a  social  room  for  the  community  to  use  at  the  agricul- 
tural school,  or  high  school.    List  its  equipment. 

2.  Make  plans  for  a  good  shed  or  barn  where  animals  from  the  community 
may  be  temporarily  cared  for  at  the  school,  while  they  are  being  studied  by 
classes.     Give  equipment  necessary  for  such  quarters. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  ten  kinds  of  trips  which  agricultural  students  in  your 
state  could  take  to  make  use  of  the  community  in  their  school  work. 

4.  Outline  a  trip  near  your  school  for  an  exercise  in  treating  swine  for 
cholera. 

5.  Describe  the  details  of  an  extension  trip  in  the  study  of  sheep  at  lamb- 
ing time. 

6.  Outline  a  community  trip  for  studying  hogs  which  have  died  from 
cholera.    Include  post-mortem  examinations. 

7.  Outline  a  half-day's  exercise  for  your  class  in  planning  and  beautifying 
the  home  grounds  of  a  neighboring  farm. 

8.  Outline  a  plan  for  cooperating  with  rural  schools  near  you,  to  aid  them 
in  their  agricultural  work. 

9.  Write  a  premium  list  for  a  small  community  fair. 

10.  Participate  in  soliciting  premiums  for  a  community  fair. 

11.  Erect  a  model  instruction  booth  for  a  community  fair.      This  may  be 
done  either  at  the  school  or  elsewhere. 

12.  Plan    the    details    of    at    least    three    topics    for    the    agricultural 
commencement. 


QUESTIONS  413 

13.  Write  a  program    for  a  imxlel    fanners'  institute,  with  wet  ions  for 
men  and  women,  to  cover  throe  sessions,  forenoon,  afternoon,  and  evening. 

14.  Write  a  program   for  a   fruit   growers'  short   course,  covering   three 
days;  another  for  dairying;  another  for  bee-keeping;  another  for  animal  hus- 
bandry; another  for  poultry. 

15.  Obtain,  or  write,  a  constitution  and  by-laws  for  use  of  a  cooperative 
fanners'  organization  of  some  kind. 

16.  Plan  the  details  of  some  important  agricultural  campaign,  for  your 
region.     Tell  how  you  would  obtain  workers  and  prepare  suitable  outlines 
for  their  guidance  in  the  campaign. 

17.  Prepare  a  model  article  for  use  in  the  local  paper  which  will   be  of 
benefit  both  to  your  school  and  to  the  community.     Have  your  article;  pub- 
lished in  the  paper. 

18.  Prepare  a  similar  article  with   illustrations   and   have   it   published 
likewise. 

19.  Prepare  a  list  of  many  ways  in  which  your  students  can  help  in  farmers' 
institutes,  short  courses,  and  community  club  work. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  should  the  school  and  the  community  be  closely  linked  together? 

Have  you  seen  examples  of  this? 

2.  Give  arguments  in  favor  of  a  social  room  in  the  school. 

3.  How  would  you  plan  to  test  seed  corn  for  the  farmers  of  the  community? 

4.  How  would  you  obtain  ear  corn  from  farmers  for  school  exercises? 

5.  How  would  you  obtain  legume  seeds  from   farmers   to  be  inoculated  at 

the  school? 
G.  Why  should  the  school  own  a  seed  cleaner? 

7.  To  what  extent  should  fanners  be  allowed  to  make  use  of  it? 

8.  Would  you  offer  to  treat  small  grains  for  smut  for  farmers  of  the  com- 

munity?   Why? 

9.  Would  you  treat  potatoes  to  prevent  scab?    Why? 

10.  Would  you  undertake  to  have  your  students  graft  scions  for  fanners  of 

the  region?    Why? 

11.  How  could  you  manage  exercises  in  the  propagation  of  strawberries  or 

other  perennial  herbs  that  are  found  in  the  community? 

12.  How  would  you  arrange  for  a  fruit-judging  exercise  with  fruit  supplied 

by  farmers? 

13.  How  would  you  take  advantage  of  specimens  of  insects   and   their  work 

or  of  plant  diseases  brought  to  your  school? 

14.  How  can  you  make  school  lessons  concerning  the  noxious  weeds  of  the 

region? 

15.  What  machinery  of  your  region  might  be  repaired   at    the  school  shop 

with  advantage  to  the  class? 

16.  Why  should  the  school  aid  fanners  in  planning  their  farm  buildings? 

17.  Why  should  the  school  offer  to  test  milk  from  cows  of  the  region? 

18.  How  would  you  manage  the  livestock  of  the  region  for  use  of  your  pupils 

in  the  school? 

19.  What  are  the  two  main  purposes  for  attempting  to  extend  the  activity 

of  the  school  throughout  the  region? 

20.  Give  examples  of  poultry  lessons  you  could  teach  to  your  students  out 

in  the  community. 

21.  Give  examples  of  dairying  lessons  you  could  best  give  to  your  pupils  In- 

taking  them  to  dairy-  farms. 

22.  Give  examples  of  similar  extension  work  with  swine. 

23.  Describe  an  extension  trip  for  work  with  sheep. 


414  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  COMMUNITY  WORK 

24.  Describe  an  extension  trip  to  a  beef  cattle  farm. 

25.  Give  lessons  to  be  learned  on  a  farm  where  pure  bred  horses  are  raised. 

26.  Give  list  of  materials  that  you  might  secure  at  a  post-mortem  examination 

from  a  horse,  a  sheep,  a  cow. 

27.  How  would  you  conduct  a  lesson  in  orchard  pruning,  on  a  nearby  farm? 

28.  In  orchard  spraying? 

29.  Suggest  some  community  lessons  in  home  gardening. 

30.  How  could  you  help  your  community  in  landscape  gardening? 

31.  How  could  you  help  your  community  in  the  introduction  of  new  plants? 

32.  Describe  a  community  exercise  in  terracing;  in  land  drainage. 

33.  Suggest  some  other  community  work  with  soils  and  tillage  of  soils. 

34.  Suggest  some  community  work  in  farm  mechanics. 

35.  Why  should  the  agricultural  department  of  a  high-school  endeavor  to 

cooperate  with  other  small  schools  of  the  region  in  the  community  work? 

36.  Give  reasons  for  holding  community  fairs. 

37.  Describe  a  number  of  educational  booths  for  agricultural  fairs. 

38.  Why  should  agriculture  students  give  demonstrations  at  their  commence- 

ment exercises? 

39.  Suggest  several  topics  for  such  a  program. 

40.  Why   should   the   agricultural   school   participate   in   planning   farmers' 

institutes? 

41.  Why  should  the  agricultural  school  or  department  offer  short  courses  in 

special  lines? 

42.  Give  reasons  for  aiding  in  forming  cooperative  organizations. 

43.  Give  a  list  of  agricultural  drives,  or  campaigns,  which  would  be  of  use 

in  your  state. 

44.  Give  reasons  why  the  agricultural  school  should  use  the  local  press. 

45.  Give  a  list  of  materials  which  the  school  can  furnish  the  press. 

46.  Give  the  characteristics  of  good  newspaper  articles  of  this  kind. 

47.  Give  your  reasons  for  and  against  starting  school  papers. 


APPENDIX 

TEXTBOOKS  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

The  following  books,  arranged  by  subjects,  arc  those  which  are  considered 
most  worthy  of  consideration  for  use  as  regular  textbooks  in  the  courses  men- 
tioned, when  offered  as  vocational  courses  in  high  schools.  As  other  books 
are  published  from  time  to  time  the  recommended  list  may  need  to  ix-  varied. 
In  some  states  uniform  lists  for  all  the  schools  are  adopted  and  are  to  be  fol- 
lowed. This  list  does  not  pretend  to  include  all  the  reference  books  for  these 
courses. 

FIELD  CROPS  OB  PLANT  LIFE,  USUALLY  FIRST  YEAR. — Davis'  Productive  Plant  Hus- 
bandry; Montgomery's  Productive  Farm  Crops;  Duggar's  Southern  Field  Crops;  Wilson  und 
Warburton's  Field  Crops;  Livingston's  Field  Crop  Production. 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY. — Harper's  Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools;  Harper's  Manual  of 
Farm  Animals;  Plumb's  Beginnings  in  Animul  Husbandry;  Torincy  and  Lowry's  Animal 
Husbaiidry> 

DAIRYING. — Washburn's  Productive  Dairy  Husbandry;  Eckles  and  Warren's  Dairy 
Farming. 

POULTRY  HUSBANDRY. — Lewis'  Productive  Poultry  Husbandry;  Lewis'  Poultry  Keep- 
ing; I.ippincott's  Poultry  Production. 

FEEDS  AND  FEEDING. — W oil's  Productive  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals;  Henry  and  Mor- 
rison's Feeds  and  Feeding  (Abridged). 

HORTICULTURE. — Davis'  Horticulture;  Hood's  Horticulture. 

SMALL  FRUITS. — Sears'  Productive  Small  Fruits. 

GARDENING. — Davis'  School  and  Home  Gardening;  Lloyd  Productive  Vegetable  Gar- 
dening; Watts'  Vegetable  Gardening  (for  trucking  regions). 

SOILS. — Wier's   Productive   Soils;  Whitson  and  Walster's  Soils  and  Soil   Fertility. 

ORCHARDING. — Sears'  Productive  Orcharding;  Bailey's  Principles  of  Fruit  Growing. 

FARM  MECHANIC'S  AND  ENGINEERING. — Davidson's  Farm  Engineering,  Ramsower's 
Equipment  for  the  Farm  and  the  Farmstead. 

FARM  MANAGEMENT. — Boss'  Farm  Management;  Warren's  Farm  Management. 

LIST  OF  BOOKS  AND  BULLETINS 

The  following  State  Departments  of  Vocational  Education  have  issued 
classified  lists  of  references  and  texts: 

CALIFORNIA. — Bibliography  of  Agricultural  Reference  Books  (very  full)  (State  t'ni- 
versity,  Berkeley). 

IOWA. — List  of  Bulletins  and  Circulars,  classified  by  subjects  (Ames). 

MICHIGAN. — Agricultural  Reference  Library;  Textbooks  (Bui.  2<Jo,  List  of  High-school 
Equipment).  (Lansing.) 

MINNESOTA. — Books  for  Farmers  and  Farmers'  Club  Libraries;  Books  for  Judging; 
Agricultural  Reference  Library  (University  Farm,  St.  Paul). 

NEBRASKA. — Text  and  Reference  Material  in  Vocational  Agriculture  (Dept.  of  Voca- 
tional Agriculture,  Lincoln). 

NEW  YORK. — Suggested  Reference  Books  for  Vocational  Agriculture  (State  Education 
Department,  Albany). 

TEXAS. — Required  Reference  Books  for  Vocational  Agriculture  (A  and  M.  College, 
Bryan). 

Write  to  the  States  Relations  Service,  Division  of  Agricultural  Instruction, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for  lists  of  Texts  and 
References  for  Secondary  Schools.  Special  lists  are  issued  upon  the  following 
topics: 


General  Agriculture. 
Agronomy. 
Animal  Husbandry. 
Dairy  Husbandry. 
Poultry  Husbandry. 
Horticulture. 


Economic  Entomology. 

Floriculture  and  Landscape  Gardening. 

Rural  Engineering. 

Laboratory  Manuals  in  Agriculture. 

General  Science. 

Agricultural  Science. 

415 


416 


APPENDIX 


Write  alao  to  the  kst  above  address  for  lists  of  bulletins  and  volumes  of 
the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  classified  for  the  use  of  teachers.  The 
lists  are  issued  on  a  number  of  topics: 


Agronomy. 

Animal  Husbandry. 

Dairying. 

Birds  and  Other  Animals. 

Horticulture. 


Gardening. 
Rural  Engineering. 
Farm  Management. 
Home  Economics. 


LISTS  OF  AIDS  IN  TEACHING  AGRICULTURE 

Send  to  the  Division  of  Agricultural  Instruction,  States  Relations  Service, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for  a  list  of  each  of  the 
following: 

"Sources  of  Pictures  Useful  in  Teaching  Agriculture  and  Nature  Study." 
"Sources  of  Maps,  Charts,  and  Models." 
"  Lists  of  Exhibits." 

Dealers  in  "Laboratory  Equipment  and  Supplies." 

Bulletins  and  circulars  on  "Suggestions  for  Teachers  in  Secondary  Schools." 
Sources  of  Projection  Apparatus  and  Materials:    Lantern  slides  available  from  private 
firms;  moving  picture  films;  projection  apparatus. 
Lantern  Slides  with  syllabi. 
List  of  Illustrated  Lectures. 

Write  to  the  teacher-training  institutions  of  your  state,  particularly 
those  officially  designated,  as  the  Agricultural  College,  for  the  following  things. 
Some  of  these  may  best  be  obtained  from  your  state  supervisor,  whose  ott.ce 
is  probably  at  the  state  capital. 

List  of  slides  and  charts  and  films  and  exchanges  for  these. 

Project  work  blanks. 

Farm  account  blank  books. 

Samples  of  illustrative  material. 

List  of  firms  that  furnish  samples  and  illustrative  material. 

List  of  Livestock  Breeders'  Associations. 

Lists  of  Agricultural  Journals  recommended  for  the  State. 

State  course  of  study  and  list  of  book  adoptions. 

State  Library  regulations  and  blanks. 

Detailed  outlines  of  lessons  and  exercises  in  various  subjects. 

Lists  of  apparatus  for  equipping  schools. 

Project  outlines. 

Pamphlets  issued  by  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education. 

Extension  bulletins,  farmers'  bulletins,  club  bulletins. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS 


ALABAMA. — College  Station,  Auburn;  Cane- 
brake  Station,  Uniontpwn;  Tuskegee 
Station,  Tuskegee  Institute. 

ALASKA. — Sitka. 

ARIZONA. — Tucson. 

ARKANSAS. — Fayetteville. 

CALIFORNIA. — -Berkeley. 

COLORADO. — Fort  Collins. 

CONNECTICUT. — State  Station,  New  Haven; 
Storrs  Station,  Storrs. 

DELAWARE. — Newark. 

FLORIDA. — Gainesville. 

GEORGIA. — Experiment. 

GUAM. — Island  of  Guam. 

HAWAII. — Federal  Station,  Honolulu;  Sugar 
Planters'  Station,  Honolulu. 

IDAHO. — Moscow. 

ILLINOIS. — I'rbana. 

INDIANA. — Lafayette. 


IOWA. — Ames. 

KANSAS. — Manhattan. 

KENTUCKY. — Lexington. 

LOUISIANA. — State  Station,   Baton   Rouge; 

Sugar    Station,    Audubon    Park,    New 

Orleans;   North  La.  Station,  Calhoun; 

Rice  Station,  Crowley. 
MAINE. — Orono. 
MARYLAND. — College  Park. 
MASSACHUSETTS. — Amherst. 
MICHIGAN. — East  Lansing. 
MINNESOTA. — University  Farm.  St.  Paul. 
MISSISSIPPI  —Agricultural  College. 
MISSOURI. — College      Station,      Columbia; 

Fruit  Station,  Mountain  Grove. 
MONTANA. — Bozeman. 
NEBRASKA. — Lincoln. 
NEVADA. — Reno. 
NEW  HAMPSHIRE. — Durham. 


APPENDIX 


417 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS  (Continued  > 


NEW  JERSEY. — New  Brunswick. 

NEW  MEXICO. — State  College. 

New  YORK.— State  Station,  Geneva;  Cor- 
nell Station,  Ithaca. 

NORTH  CAROLINA. — Raleigh  and  West 
Raleigh. 

NORTH  DAKOTA. — Agricultural  College. 

OHIO. — Wooster. 

OKLAHOMA. — Stillwater. 

OREGON. — Corvallis. 

PENNSYLVANIA. — State  College. 

PORTO  Rico. — Federal  Station,  Mayagucz; 
Insular  Station,  Rio  Piedras. 

RHODE  ISLAND. — Kingston. 


SOUTH  CAROLINA. — ClernBon  ColUnc* 

SOUTH   DAKOTA.  —  Hnx.kingB 

TKNNKMNKK.  —  Knoxville. 

TEX  AH.  — College  Station. 

I.'TAH. — I.ogan. 

VERMONT.      Burlington. 

VIRGINIA.  —  Dlackaburg;      Truck      Sution, 

Norfolk. 

VIRGIN   IHI.ANDH. — St.  Croi«. 
WASHINGTON.— Pullman. 
WEHT   \'II«IINIA.   -Morgantown. 
WISCONHIN.  —  MuiliHon. 
\V  YOMINO.  — Laramie. 


AMERICAN  LIVESTOCK  RECORD  ASSOCIATIONS 

Every  school  teaching  agriculture  should  write;  to  the  secretary  of  the 
associations  of  those  breeds  of  livestock  of  importance  in  the  region.  Ask  for 
pamphlets  and  other  literature  regarding  the  particular  breed,  and  aim  for 
blanks  used  in  registering  animals.  Some  of  the  associations  can  furnish  fine 
pictures  of  noted  animals  of  their  breeds.  These  may  U-  mounted  on  wall  cards, 
as  framed,  or  used  in  making  charts.  Some  of  them  GUI  supply  charts.  A  few 
of  the  associations  have  sets  of  lantern  slides  or  films  to  loan  to  schools. 

Get  a  revised  list  of  these  associations  and  also  a  list  of  state  and  county 
livestock  associations  by  writing  to  the  animal  husbandry  department  of  your 
State  Agricultural  College. 


Horses 


Arabian    Horse    Club    of    Am.,    1729    "G" 

Street  N.  W.,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Am.    Assn.    of    Importers   and    Breeders    of 

Belgian  Draft  Horses,  Wrabash,  Ind. 
Cleveland   Bay   Society   of  Am.,  Oconomo- 

woc,  Wis. 
Am.  Clydesdale  Assn.,  Union  Stock  Yards, 

Chicago. 
French  Coach   Horse  Society  of  Am.,  Oak 

Park,  111. 
National  French  Draft  Horse  Assn.  of  Am., 

Fan-field,  Iowa. 
German,  Hanoverian  and  Oldenburg  Coach 

Horse  Assn.  of  Am.,  Lafayette,  Ind. 
Am.  Hackney  Horse  Soc.,  Hempstead,  L.  I., 

N.  Y. 


Am.  Morgan  Register  As.su.,  Middlebury.  N't. 
Perchcron    Society    of    Am.,     t'nion    Stock 

Yards,  Chicago. 
Am.     Breeders'    and    Importers'    Percheron 

Registry  Co.,   Plainficld,  Ohio. 
Am.    Saddle    Horse    Breeders'    Assn.,    I.aw- 

renceburg,  Ky. 

Am.  Shetland   Pony  flub,   Lafayette,   Ind. 
Am.  Shire  Horse  Assn.,  Wenona,  111. 
Am.  Suffolk   Horse  Assn..   DeKalh,   III 
Am.    Trotting    Register    Assn.,     l.'{7    South 

Ashland  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Jockey    Club,    t»-S    East    loth    Street,    Now 

V..rk.  N.  Y. 
Welsh   Pony  and   Cob  Society   i.f   Am  ,   !.»- 

fayette,  Ind. 


Jack*  anil  J 

Am.  Breeders'  Assn.  of  Jacks  and  Jennets, 
Columbia,  Tenn. 


j en n cis 

Standard  Jack  and  Jennet  Registry  of  Am., 
Kansas  City,  Mo. 


Cattle 


Am.  Aberdeen-Angus  Breeders'  Assn.,  I'nion 
Stock  Yards,  Chicago. 

Ayrshire  Breeders'  Assn.,  Brandon.  Yt. 

Brown  Swiss  Cattle  Breeders'  Assn.,  Beloit, 
Wis. 

Am.  Devon  Cattle  Club,  Chnrlottesville.  \  a. 

Dutch  Belted  Cattle  Assn.  of  Am.,  Marks- 
boro,  N.  J. 

American  Galloway  Breeders'  Assn.,  Inde- 
pendence, Mo.  . 

Am.  Guernsey  Cattle  Club,  Peterboro,  N.  II 

American  Hereford  Cattle  Breeders'  Assn., 
Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Holstein-Friesian  Assn.  of  Am.,  Brattle- 
boro,  Yt. 


27 


Am.  Jersey  Cattle  Club,  3lM  W.  st  -Md  Street. 
New  "York.  N.  Y. 

Am.  Kerry  and  Dexter  Cattle  Club,  Colum- 
bus. Ohio. 

Polled  Durham  Breeders'  Assn.,  C!re«Dville, 

Ohio. 

Am.  Polled  Hereford  Breeders'  Assn  .  IV* 
Moines,  Iowa. 

Red  Polled  Cattle  Club  of  Am.,  Gotham. 
Wis. 

Am.  Shorthorn  Breeders'  Assn.,  I'nion  Stm-k 
Yards.  Chicago. 

Am.  Dairy  Shorthorn  Cattle  Club,  Orange- 
ville.'ohio 

Am.  Polled  Durham  Breeders'  AMD  ,  In- 
dianapolis, Ind. 


418 


APPENDIX 


Sheep 


Am.    Cheviot   Sheep   Society,    Fayetteville, 

N.  Y. 
Am.   Cotawold   Registry  Assn.,   Waukesha, 

Wis. 
Continental   Dorset   Club,    Mechanicsburg, 

Ohio. 
Am.    Hampshire   Sheep    Assn.,    Coldwater, 

Mich. 

Am.  Leicester  Breeders'  Assn.,  Cameron,  111. 
National    Lincoln    Sheep    Breeders'    Assn., 

Charlotte,  Mich. 
Am.  and  Delaine  Merino  Record  Assn.,  Del- 

aware, Ohio. 
Dickinson  Merino  Sheep  Record  Co.,  New 

Berlin,  Ohio. 
National   Delaine   Merino   Sheep   Breeders' 

Assn.  of  Washington  County,  Canons- 

burg,  Pa. 
Standard   Delaine   Merino  Sheep   Breeders' 


Assn.,  Saline,  Mich. 


Am.  Rambouillet  Sheep  Breeders'  Assn., 
M  i  If  i  in  I  Center,  Ohio. 

International  Von  Homeyer  Rambouillet 
Club,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

Michigan  Merino  Sheep  Breeders'  Assn., 
Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

Vermont,  New  York  and  Ohio  Merino  Sheep 
Breeders'  Assn.,  Delaware,  Ohio. 

Am.  Oxford  Down  Record  Assn.,  Hamilton, 
Ohio. 

Am.  Romney  Breeders'  Assn.,  Mechanics- 
burg,  Ohio. 

Am.  Shropshire  Registry  Assn.,  Lafayette, 
Ind. 

Am.  Southdown  Breeders'  Assn.,  Spring- 
field. 111. 

Am.  Tunis  Sheep  Breeders'  Assn.,  Craw- 
fordsville,  Ind. 


Goats 


Am.  Angora  Goat  Breeders'  Assn.,  Lawrence, 
Kans. 


Am.  Milch  Goat  Record  Assn.,  Dean,  Ohio. 


Hogs 


Am.  Berkshire  Assn.,  Springfield,  111. 
Am.  Large  Black  Pig  Soc.,  Lexington,  Ky. 
Cheshire  Swine  Breeders'  Assn.,   Freeville, 

N.  Y. 
O.  I.  C.  Swine  Breeders'  Assn.,  P.  O.  Drawer 

"  U,"  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Chester  White  Record  Assn.,  Rochester,  Ind. 
Am.   Duroc   Jersey   Swine   Breeders'   Assn., 

Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago. 
National     Duroc     Jersey     Record     Assn., 

Peoria,  111. 
Am.     Hampshire     Swine     Record     Assn., 

Peoria,  111. 
Am.  Poland  China  Record  Co.,  Union  Stock 

Yards,  Chicago. 


National  Poland  China  Record  Co.,  Win- 
chester, Ind. 

Standard  Poland  China  Record  Assn., 
Maryville,  Mo. 

Am.  Tamworth  Swine  Record  Assn.,  Ann 
Arbor,  Mich. 

Am.  Yorkshire  Club,  White  Bear  Lake, 
Minn. 

National  Mule-foot  Hog  Assn.,  Ada,  Ohio. 

Mule-foot  Hog  Breeders'  Assn.,  Mammoth 
Springs,  Ark. 

Am.  Mule-foot  Hog  Record  Co.,  Columbus, 
Ohio. 


HOW  TO  MAKE  LANTERN  SLIDES  BY  HAND 

(J.  V.  ANKENEY) 

It  is  often  advisable  to  make  lantern  slides  by  hand  in  order  to  quickly 
present  tables,  diagrarns,  cartoons,  announcements,  songs,  etc.  The  following 
are  some  methods  which  have  been  used  by  the  writer  and  have  been  useful. 

Ink  on  Glass. — 1.  Clean  a  glass  slide  and  with  a  crow  quill  pen  write,  print, 
or  draw  on  the  glass  with  India  ink.  The  ink  will  take  more  readily  if  the  dry 
finger  is  first  rubbed  over  the  spot  on  which  the  lettering  is  to  be  done. 

2.  Special  inks  in  a  variety  of  colors  known  as  lantern  slide  inks  may  be 
purchased.    These  may  be  used  with  clean  pen  on  the  slide. 

3.  One  may  write  directly  on  ground  glass  or  mica  with  either  pen  or 
pencil.    Mica  slides  withstand  the  heat. 

Ink  or  Pencil  on  Prepared  Glass. — 1.  An  ordinary  unexposed  lantern  slide 
plate  may  be  fixed  in  the  usual  way,  washed,  and  allowed  to  dry,  after  which 
it  may  be  written  on  with  either  pencil  or  pen.  This,  of  course,  is  rather  costly. 

2.  A  10  per  cent  solution  of  gelatin  in  hot  water  may  be  made  and  flowed 
over  the  glass  side,  allowed  to  dry,  and  be  written  on  as  above. 

3.  A  solution  of  Canada  balsam  in  either  turpentine  or  xylol  (xylol  dries 
quicker)  flowed  over  a  glass  slide  is  more  satisfactory  than  the  gelatin  solution. 


APPENDIX  419 

4.  A  ground  glass  substitute  is  made  as  follows:  Sandarac,  90  gr. ;  mastic, 
20  gr.;  ether.  2  oz.;  benzole,  i  to  1 J  oz.  The  proportion  of  the  benzole  added 
determines  the  grain  of  the  matt  obtained;  this  may  be  flowed  over  the  glaw* 
slide.  This  dries  in  a  few  minutes  (2  or  3),  leaves  a  matt  surface  which  softens 
the  projected  light,  and  takes  ink  and  pencil  well. 

On  Gelatin  Sheets. — 1.  Sheet  gelatin  may  be  purchased  in  a  variety  of 
colors,  also  clear  and  matt.  This  will  take  ink,  pencil  (on  matt),  and  type- 
writer. For  best  results  on  a  typewriter  place  two  pieces  of  new  carbon  paper 
so  that  their  faces  touch  the  gelatin  sheet.  Type  in  the  usual  way  and  place 
between  cover  glasses  with  vignette  matt  and  bind. 

2.  In  order  to  make  the  above  idea  more  easily  carried  out  several  com- 
panies now  make  a  combination  gelatin  sheet,  carbon  paper,  and  matt  ready 
to  go  into  the  typewriter.  The  gelatin  sheet  is  mounted  in  the  usual  way. 

Miscellaneous. — The  simplest  slide  to  make  is  that  made  by  smoking  a 
glass  slide  over  a  candle  or  kerosene  lamp  and  scratching  the  letters  or  drawing 
with  a  pin  or  other  sharp  instrument. 

A  glass  pencil  or  china  marker's  pencil  may  be  procured  from  any  labora- 
tory supply  house  or  from  most  stationers.  This  may  be  used  for  writing  on 
glass  direct. 

The  value  of  the  above  suggestions  will  depend  upon  the  ingenuity  of  the 
user  and  the  care  exercised  in  executing  them. 

HOW  TO  MAKE  A  HECTOGRAPH 

(J.  V.  ANKENEY) 

Clay  Hectograph. — 1.  Get  a  shallow  pan  (about  1  inch  deep)  of  a  size 
slightly  larger  than  the  sheet  of  paper  which  you  wish  to  use. 

2.  Fill  this  carefully  with  modeling  clay  or  plastacine,  pounding  and  work- 
ing into  place  with  a  straight-edge.    When  the  surface  is  perfectly  smooth 
add  glycerine  slowly  until  it  will  absorb  no  more.     Allow  to  stand  until  all 
glycerine  is  absorbed. 

3.  To  use,  write  with  aniline  ink  or  duplicator  typewriter  ribbon  on  a 
good  grade  of  bond  paper.    Lay  a  plain  sheet  of  paper  on  the  pad  and  rub  it 
smooth  with  a  round  stick  or  squeegee  roller.    This  is  to  level  the  surface  and 
make  it  smooth.    Now  place  the  prepared  copy  face  down  on  the  hectograph 
and  rub  into   perfect   contact.     Remove   in   from   3   to   5   minutes.     Then 
proceed  by  placing  clean  sheets  one  at  a  time  on  the  pad  and  rubbing  into 
contact.    The  length  of  time  necessary  to  secure  a  perfect  copy  may  be  found 
by  experiments. 

4.  Keep  a  cloth  moistened  with  glycerine  over  the  pad  when  not  in  use. 

5.  A  piece  of  glass  or  a  metal  lid  may  serve  as  a  cover  to  the  box. 

6.  To  use  again,  wash  off  the  surface  with  a  moist  sponge  until  clean.    Dry 
with  a  rag  and  proceed  as  above. 

Gelatin  Hectograph. — 1.  Secure  a  pan  a  little  larger  than  the  sheet  you 
wish  to  use.  This  may  be  a  cake  or  bread  pan  or  may  be  made  of  wood. 

2.  Soak  2  oz.  of  gelatin  in  water  over  night.    The  surplus  wator  should 
be  poured  off.     Twelve  or  thirteen  ounces  of  glycerine  should  be  heated  to 
about  the  boiling  point  of  water,  add  the  gelatin.    Pour  into  the  pan  and  prick 
all  air  bubbles.    Let  stand  in  a  cool  place  until  perfectly  firm.    Be  sure  pun  is 
level  and  kept  covered. 

3.  Make  the  copy  as  suggested  above.    Moisten  surface  slightly  and  pro- 
ceed as  above.    When  through  using  the  hectograph ,  wash  the  surface  with  a 
moist  sponge.    A  few  drops  of  oil  of  cloves  added  to  gelatin  acts  as  a  preserva- 
tive during  hot  weather. 

NOTE. — Hectograph  ink  may  be  purchased  from  stationers  and  school- 
supply  houses. 


420  APPENDIX 

PREPARATION  FOR  LABORATORY  TABLE  TOPS 

Here  is  a  recipe  for  an  inexpensive  method  of  treating  the  tops  of  wooden 
laboratory  tables.  Slate  is  costly.  Glass  is  easily  broken.  Paint  is  eaten  off 
by  acids.  Two  solutions  are  used.  The  first  is  composed  of  50  grams  of  copper 
sulfate  and  50  grams  of  potassium  chlorate,  the  two  being  boiled  in  400  grams 
of  water.  This  first  solution  is  put  on  with  a  large  brush  while  boiling  hot. 
The  wood  must  be  clean  and  free  from  oil  or  paint  so  the  solution  will  penetrate 
the  surface.  Apply  a  second  coat  when  dry. 

The  second  solution  is  made  by  dissolving  60  grams  of  anilin  oil  in  80  grams 
of  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid  and  diluting  this  to  500  grams  with  water. 
Apply  one  coat  of  this.  After  drying,  the  two  solutions  may  each  be  applied 
again  if  a  darker  color  is  desired.  Wash  the  top  later  with  hot  soap  suds  and 
when  dry  rub  in  a  little  melted  paraffin  mixed  with  vaseline.  This  recipe  is 
enough  for  three  or  more  tables  such  as  are  described  in  Chapter  XV. 


INDEX 

Accounting,  278  Aids  in  mechanics,  214 

Advantages  of  Minnesota  classified-      Aim  in  engineering,  20.5 

tion,  371  farm  management,  228 

Agreement,  project,  271  horticulture,  109 

Agricultural  campaigns,  406  poultry,  150 

department  and  community,  377  soils,  248 

novels,  365  Aims,  less  prominent,  62 

pageant,  401  Alfalfa  chart,  89 

short  courses,  404  project,  topics  for,  76 

Agriculture  garments,  12  Analysis  of  seeds,  78 

in  high  schools,  19  Animal  disease,  study,  390 

in  program,  17  Animal  husbandry,  aids,  124 

knowledge  of,  36  aim  in,  J09 

supervising,  14  apparatus,  125 

teacher,  2  at  the  school,  121 

as  a  manager,  26  books,  131 

needs  of,  2  bulletins,  132 

Agronomy  and  other  subjects,  75  chapter  on,  109-133 

apparatus,  98  class  work,  112 

books,  105  content,  109 

bulletins,  106  discoveries,  128 

charts,  88  discussions,  128 

class  work  in,  76  equipment,  111 

demonstrations,  78  exercises,  132 

discoveries,  104  in  grades,  126 

discussions,  104  in  rural  schools,  126 

equipment,  95,  103  journals,  132 

exercises  in,  78,  79,  106  laboratory   work,    115,    118. 

field  trips  in,  79,  80  119,  120 

films,  101,  102  lesson,  127 

how  to  teach,  74-108  method  in,  109 

in  town  grades,  103  observations,  129 

journals,  106  questions,  133 

laboratory,  96  readings,  128 

materials  in,  76  review,  114 

storage  of,  95  sciences,  126 

meaning  of,  74  short  courses,  127 

observations,  105  skills,  130 

photographs,  102  surveys,  121,  122.  123 

pictures  for,  100,  101  things  to  do  in,  129 

projects  in,  82-85  solve,  131 

questions,  107  work,  17 

room,  96  Animals  for  school.  384 

samples,  99  time  for  each,  9 

short  courses,  104  Apparatus,  agricultural.  328-330 

skills,  89  animal  husbandry,  125 

slides,  102  place  for,  330 

supplies,  98,  100  small,  330 

surveys,  85,  86  Arrangement  of  books,  372 

things  to  do  in,  105  Articles,  characteristics,  410 

421 


422 


INDEX 


Assigning  pupils,  15 
Assignment,  the,  39 
Attitude,  professional,  28 

Baby  beef  projects,  114 
Banquet,  short  course,  18 
Bar  graph,  333 
Beautifying  work,  194 
Bee  projects,  288,  289,  294 
Beef  cattle  farm  lessons,  389 
mechanics,  210 
trips,  389 

Beef  project,  278,  291     . 
Belting,  studying,  223 
Bird  houses  as  shop  work,  220 
Blackboard,  slate,  320 

uses,  332 

Blackleg,  inoculation  for,  143 
Bleachers,  judging,  319 
Board,  chart,  334,  336 
Book,  for  whom,  6 

from  experience,  6 

use  of  this,  5 
Books,  agricultural,  415 
Books  in  animal  husbandry,  131 

in  agronomy,  105 

library,  365 

mechanics,  225 

on  methods,  2 

poultry,  167 
Booths  at  fairs,  396 
Bread  for  institute,  377 
Brooder  houses,  building,  152,  153 

operation,  154 
Budding  on  farms,  392 
Buildings,  planning,  383 

ventilation  of,  384 
Bulletin  cases,  367 
Bulletins,  dairy,  148 

farm  management,  246 

in  animal  husbandry,  132 

library,  366 

mechanics,  225 

poultry,  167 

soils,  268 
Burbank  visited,  393 

Cabinets,  326,  327 
Calf  project,  113 
Camera,  school,  329 
Campaigns,  agricultural,  406 
Camps,  agricultural,  405 
Card  index,  372 
Carpentry  work,  222 
Cases,  display,  321,  322 
glass-front,  326,  327 


Cases,  made  by  students,  373 
Catalogues,  animal  husbandry,  132 

poultry,  167 
Cattle  associations,  417 

exercises,  121 

judging,  111 

project.  113,  114 
Chairs,  student,  325 
Characteristics  of  articles,  410 
Charge  for  machinery,  278 
Chart,  bar  graph,  333 

board,  334,  336 

crayon,  338 

drawing,  344,  345,  357,  359,  360 

fixative  for,  338 

garden,  335 

ink,  338 

letters,  337,  341,  343 

making,  334,  340 

materials,  334 

paper  and  cloth,  338 

rectangular  surfaces,  342 

stand,  339,  340 

uses,  334 

water  system,  361 

wording,  341,  343 
Charts,  agricultural,  342 

chapter  on,  332-363 

farm  management,  238 

for  alfalfa,  89 

horticulture,  192 

many,  342 

of  water  heater,  210 

on  field  crops,  87,  88 

school,  329 

using,  346,  348 
Chemistry  in  soils,  261 
Chicks,  growth  of,  161 
Cholera  vaccination,  117 
Choosing  textbooks,  20 
Citations,  project  topics,  273 
City  grades  (see  Grades) 
Classification  in  agriculture,  15 

library,  370,  371 
Classifying  library,  369-373 
Class  management,  effect  of,  31 

meeting,  45 

organization,  15-17 

work  in  animal  husbandry,  112 
in  agronomy,  76 
in  dairying,  136 
in   farm   management,  229- 

231 

in  horticulture,  176 
in  mechanics,  208,  209 
in  poultry,  153,  154 


INDEX 


423 


Class  work  in  soils,  251 
Cleaning  seeds,  380 
('loth,  chart,  338 
Clubs,  community,  378 
Coldframes,  175 

making,  176 

Combination  of  methods,  60 
Commencement  exercises,  390,  401 

topics,  401 

Community  and  agricultural  depart- 
ment, 377 

center,  376 

clubs,  378 

exercises,  412 

fairs,  395,  397 

garden  trips,  392 

livestock  lesson,  389 

man,  233 

problems  at  school,  379-385 

questions,  413 

relation  to,  28 

school  taken  to,  385 

using  in  dairying,  141 

work,  chapter,  376-414 
conducting,  376-414 
for  shop,  216 
Concrete  practice  at  school,  221,  222 

work,  221,  222,  224 
Conduct  of  recitation,  61 
Considerations,  general,  36 
Containers  for  specimens,  97 

for  soil,  251 
Content  of  curriculum,  7 

poultry  course,  150 

soils,  248 

Conversation  method,  57 
Conveyance,  means  of,  284 
Conveyances  for  trips,  59 
Cooperation,  school,  394 
Cooperative  organizations,  405 
Corn,  field  studies  of,  82 

lor  judging,  95,  379 

projects,  281 

selection,  77,  90,  91,  94 

testing,  77 

to  test,  379 

Correlations,  curriculum,  14 
Cost  accounting,  278 
Cotton  projects,  92 

seed  selection,  92 
Course  in  engineering,  205 

farm  management,  228 

horticulture,  169,  170 
Courses  of  study,  416 
Co-workers,  relationship  to,  28 
Crayon,  chart,  338 


Cream  to  test,  384 

Crop  project,  274,  275 

Oops,  order  of  considering,  76 

Crusade  (see  Campaign) 

Cupboards,  321 

Curriculum,  content,  7 
correlations,  14 
organizing  the,  7-15 

Cuttings,  fruit,  381 

Dairy  bulletins,  148 

chart,  333 

class,  work,  136 

cow,  drawing  of,  357 

discoveries,  146 

discussions,  146 

equipment,  134,  135 

exercises,  149 

farm  lessons,  386 

journals,  148 

laboratory,  135 

laboratory  work,  137-139 

observations,  146 

project,  282,  283,  284 

project  list,  290 
mechanics,  210 

questions,  149 

readings,  148 

references,  148 

scoring,  141 

short  courses,  145 

survey,  142 

things  to  do,  147 

solve,  147 
Dairying,  aids  in,  142 

aim  in,  1134 

chapter,  134-149 

in  community,  141 

in  grades,  144 

in  rural  schools,  144 

lesson,  136 

Dark-room,  319,  321,  323 
Debates,  farm  management,  241 
Deduction,  37 
Demonstration,  cholera,  117 

table,  323 
Demonstrations,  farm,  406 

in  agronomy,  78 

time  for,  8 
Desk,  323 
De-tasseling,  306 
Deveneau  classification,  369 
Dewey  classification,  369,  371 
Discoveries,  agronomy,  104 

animal  husbandry,  12s 

dairying,  146 


424 


INDEX 


Discoveries,  farm  management,  242 

horticulture,  200 

poultry,  165 

in  shop  work,  220 

soils,  264 
Discussions,  agronomy,  104 

animal  husbandry,  128 

dairying,  146 

farm  management,  241 

soils,  264 
Diseases,  of  plants,  383 

trips  to  study,  390 
Disking  skill,  90 
Domestic  science  garments,  12 
Drainage  leveling,  265 

trips,  393 

Drawing,  charts,  344,  357,  359,  360 
Drill,  efficiency  in,  63 
Drilling  seeds,  90 
Drills,  mechanical,  222 
Drives  (see  Campaigns) 
Duplicator,  school,  330 
Dust  mulch,  255 

Eggs,  preserving,  161 
Electrical  connections,  320 
Engineering  chapter,  205-227 

course,  205 

projects,  213,  297 
Engineering  (see  also  Mechanics) 
Enterprise  (see  Project) 
Equipment,  adapting,  330 

agronomy,  95 

animal  husbandry,  111 

chapter,  317-331 

dairy,  134,  135 

exercises,  331 

horticulture,  172,  176 

land  laboratory,  311 

lists,  416 

place  for,  330 

poultry,  152 

propagation,  172 

questions,  331 

references,  331 

shop,  206,  207 

soils,  250 
Erosion,  257 

Examinations,  written,  69 
Excursions,  farm  management,  237 
Exercises,  agronomy,  78,  79,  106 

animal  husbandry,  132 

community,  412 

cattle,  121 

dairy,  149 

equipment,  331 


Exercises,  farm  management,  235,  246 

gardening,  181 

graduation,  399-401 

horticulture,  181-189,  203 

illustrative  material,  362 

in  methods,  70 

land  laboratory,  315 

library,  374 

management,  34 

mechanical,  226 

organization,  24 

poultry,  167 

project,  299 

sheep,  118,  120 

soils,  268 

swine,  119 
Exhibits,  classified,  397 

fair,  400 

school,  395 

Thanksgiving,  396 
Experimental  plots,  254 
Ex-soldiers  in  agriculture,  4 
Extension  work,  385 

Fair  booths,  396 
exhibits,  400 

Fairs,  community,  395-397 
Fall  festivals,  398 
Farm  demonstrations,  406 

engineering  (see  Engineering) 
equipment,  studying,  235 
journals,  using,  366 
journals,  table,  367 
machinery,  383 
management,  books,  245 

bulletins.  246 

charts,  238 

chapter,  228-247 

class  work,  229-231 

course,  228 

debates,  241 

discoveries,  242 

discussion,  241 

details,  237 

excursions,  237 

exercises,  235,  246 

in  grades,  239 

journals,  246 

laboratory  work,  231-235 

lessons,  240 

methods,  228 

observations,  243 

projects,  295 

questions,  247 

readings,  244 

rural  schools,  239 


INDEX 


425 


Farm  management,  slides,  238 
short  courses,  239 
surveys,  237 
things  to  do,  244 

solve,  243 
mechanics,  chapter,  205-227 

(see  Mechanics) 
plans,  232 
power,  211,  213 
power  equipment,  207 
practice,  emphasis  on,  14 
practice  with  sheep,  118-120 
problems,  314 
shop  work,  320 
shop  work  (see  Shop  work) 
structures,  planning,  383 
study  of  horses,  115 
Farmers'  institutes,  403 

organizations,  405 
Farms,  large,  314 
studies  at,  81 

Federal  Board  pamphlets,  416 
Feed,  green,  102 

record  forms,  277 
Fertile  eggs,  producing,  lf>l 
Fertilizer  tests,  251,  254 
Field  crop  charts,  87,  88 
crops,  aim  of,  74 

in  vocational  schools,  74 
in  rural  schools,  103 
local  character  of,  74 
mechanics  in,  211 
projects,  287 
teaching,  74-108 
time  for  each,  8 
values,  8 
(see  Agronomy) 
exercises,  235 
observation  method,  57 
selection  of  corn,  90,  91 
cotton,  92 
wheat,  92 
studies,  80 
corn,  82 
soils,  257 
trip  conveyances,  59 

outlines,  80 
trips,  conduct  of,  81 

in  agronomy,  79,  80 
notes  on,  81 
subject  for,  82 
work  time,  8 
Figures,  chart,  344-346 
Filing  and  storing,  360-362 

pictures  and  slides,  300,  362 
Films,  358 


Films,  moving  picture,  101,  102 

obtaining,  358 

using,  358,  359 
Firms  for  samples,  -116 
Fixative,  chart,  338 
Fixtures,  room,  320 
Fowl  for  institute,  377 
Formal  steps,  38 
Forms,  record,  277 

project  book,  273 
Frame,  chart  making,  336 
Fruit  cuttings,  381 

exercises,  183,  189 

lessons,  391 

projects,  193 

trees,  work  with,  307 
Fruits  to  judge,  382 
Furniture,  317-328 

for  room,  323 

Garden  chart,  335 

exercise,  181,  185-187 

home,  308 

plan,  335 

projects,  193,  293 

school,  174 

tools,  175 

trips,  189,  191,  392 
Gardening  for  children,  195 
Garments  for  work,  12 
Goat  associations,  418 
Good  order  necessary,  32 
Govrrning  in  school,  34 
Grades,  animal  husbandry  in,  126 

dairying  in,  144 

farm  management  in,  239 

organization  in,  12 

poultry  in,  163 

rope  work  in,  16 

shop  work  in,  218 

soils  in,  203 
Graduating  exercises,  399,  401 

topics,  401 
Grafting  scions,  381 
(Jrafts,  making,  109 
Grain  judging,  379 

to  treat,  380 
Grape  pruning,  182 
Greenhouse,  school,  176,  312,  323 

small,  318 

Group  project,  270.  278 
Grounds,  plan  for.  302 
Gymnasium,  school,  o'_'.'5 

Harness  work,  207 
Handicaps,  overcoming,  4 


426 


INDEX 


Harvesting  skill,  93 
Harvest  picnics,  398 
Hatches,  percentage  of,  160 
Haying  skill,  93 
Hectograph  making,  419 
Heuritis  method,  58 
High  school,  organization  in,  12 
publications,  411 
training  class,  16,  18 
Hog  associations,  418 

cot,  285 

oiler,  209 

pastures,  285 

project,  290 
Home  garden,  308 

projects  in  agronomy,  82-85 

(see  Projects) 
Horse,  farm  lessons,  389,  390 

project  mechanics,  210 

projects,  291 

records,  417 
Horses,  examining,  130 

judging,  110 

study  on  farms,  115 

work  with,  118 
Horticulture,  aim  in,  169 

chapter  on,  169-204 

charts,  192 

class  work,  176 

course,  169,  170 

discoveries,  200 

equipment,  172-176 

exercises,  203 

laboratory  work,  183-187 

lesson  in,  178, 179 

mechanics,  210 

methods  in,  172,  178 

observations,  201 

pictures,  193 

practice,  177-182 

projects,  193 

questions,  204 

reading,  198 

references,  199 

rural  school,  195,  196 

short  courses,  197,  198 

slides,  192 

surveys,  191,  192 

things  to  do,  202 
to  solve,  202 

trips,  187-189 

work,  310 
Hotbed,  175 

chart,  359 

drawing,  359 

making,  176 


Hotbed,  project,  179 
How  to  equip,  317-331 
study,  42 

Ice  cream  making,  138 
Illustrations  for  press,  409 
Illustrative  material  in  agronomy,  76 

materials,  416 
Improvement  project,  270 

projects,  mechanics  in,  211 
Income,  calculating,  280 

records,  280 

Incubator  operation,  154 
Index,  card,  372 
Individual  project,  270 
Induction,  37 

Infertile  eggs,  producing,  161 
Ink,  chart,  338 
Inoculate  seeds,  379 
Inoculation,  blackleg,  143 
Inquiries,  special,  123 
Insect  enemies,  382 
Institute,  food  for,  377 
Institutes,  farmers',  403 
Instruction  booths,  396 

visual,  332 
Instructions  on  projects,  283 

written,  283 

Jack  associations,  417 
Journals,  agricultural,  367 

agronomy,  106 

animal  husbandry,  132 

dairy,  148 

farm  management,  246 

poultry,  167 

soils,  268 

table  for,  367 

using,  366 
Judging  bleachers,  319 

cattle,  111 

contest,  95 

corn,  379 

grain,  379 

horses,  110 

livestock,  57 

skill  in,  94 

soils,  258  j 

Kafir,  selecting,  81 
Kewaunee  desk,  324,  325 
Knowledge  assumed,  36 

Laboratory  containers,  97 
dairy,  135 
exercises,  soils,  256 
for  agronomy,  96 


INDEX 


427 


Laboratory,  land,  301-316 
method,  50 

soils,  250 

study  of  corn,  94 

study  of  potatoes,  79 

table,  323,  324 

table  tops,  420 

time,  8 

work,    animal    husbandry,    115, 

118,  119,  120 
dairy,  137-140 
farm  management,  231-237 
fruit,  183-187 
gardening,  185-187 
horticulture,  183-187 
poultry,  155 
related  to  projects,  158 
soils,  253 

Labor  income,  280 
Lambs,  docking,  118 
Land  drainage  work,  393 
laboratory,  a  need,  301 
cabbage  on,  313 
care  of,  312 
chapter  on,  301-316 
characteristics,  301 
equipment,  311 
exercises,  315 
garden,  313 
gardening,  311 
plans  for,  302 
plants  on,  313 
practice,  306 
profitable,  313 
questions,  315 
references,  316 
skills,  304 
ten  acre,  309 
upkeep,  303 
uses,  303-311 

Landscape  gardening  trips,  191 
practice,  392 
projects,  295 
work,  194,  310 
Lantern  slides,  102,  238 

soils,  261 
Lanterns,  349 
good,  328 

Lane  classification,  369 
Large  school  farms,  314 
Leadership,  rural,  404 
Lecture  method,  52 
Lesson  in  animal  husbandry,  127 
dairying,  136 
farm  management,  240 
horticulture,  178 


Lesson  in  outlines,  416 

poultry,  164 

soils,  252 

written,  60 
Lessons,  beef  farm,  389 

dairy  farm,  386 

in  orchards,  391 

landscape,  392 

poultry  farm,  386 

sheep  farm,  387 

swine  farm,  387 
Less  prominent  aims,  62 
Letters,  chart,  337,  341 
Leveling  by  students,  215 

for  drainage.  265 
Libraries,  related,  374 
Library  arrangement,  372 

books,  365 

bulletins,  366 

chapter,  364-375 

classifying,  369-373 

exercises,  374 

importance,  364 

location,  373 

organizing,  364 

periodicals,  366 

questions,  374 

references,  375 

selecting,  364 

shelves  shown,  372,  373 

traveling,  374 
Lice  remedies,  162 
Lighting  system,  211 
Lime-sulfur  making,  307 
Lime  survey,  260 
Liming  couplet,  253 
Livery  stable  visited,  17 
Livestock  for  school,  384 

project,  274,  276 

time  for,  9 

values,  9 
Location,  library,  373 

Machine  shed,  360 
Machinery,  charge  for,  278 

for  field  crops,  103 

operation,  213 

studying,  212 

to  repair,  383 

work,  217 

Machines,  on  farms,  235 
Magazine  table,  367 
Major  projects,  271 
Making  charts,  340 

slides,  354 
Manage,  how  to,  26 


428 


INDEX 


Management  and  projects,  298 

chapter,  26-35 

details,  237 

exercises,  34 

good,  31 

questions,  34 

references.  35 
Manager,  teacher  as,  26 
Map,  community,  233 
Maps,  available,  347 
Market,  roadside,  245 
Mashes,  wet  and  dry,  162 
Material  for  press,  408 

in  agronomy,  76 
Materials,  chart,  334 

storage  of.  95 
Measuring  and  testing,  68 
Meat  for  institute,  377 
Mechanical  discussions,  221 

drills,  222 

problems,  223 

observations,  221 
Mechanics,  aid  in.  214 

and  physics,  214 

chapter,  205-227 

chart,  210 

class  work,  208,  209 

exercises,  226 

in  projects,  209-211 

journals,  226 

methods  in,  205 

projects,  297 

questions,  226 

readings,  219 

references,  227 

short  courses  in,  219 

surveys,  213 

trips,  215,  216,  394 
Meeting,  class,  45 
Method,  conversation,  57 

Heuritis,  58 

field  observation,  57 

laboratory,  50 

lecture,  52 

problem,  54 

question,  47 

Socratic,  56 

textbook,  55 

topical,  46 

trial  and  error,  56 
Methods,  attention  to,  2 

animal  husbandry,  109 

books  on,  2 

chapter,  36-73 

combining,  60 

exercises,  70 


Methods,  farm  management,  228 

horticulture,  172 

mechanics,  205 

minor,  55 

poultry,  150 

questions,  70 

references,  72 
Milk  records,  277 

testing,  140 

to  test,  384 

Minnesota  classification,  370,  371 
Minor  projects,  271 
Models  of  schools,  400 
Motion  projector,  329 
Moving  picture  films,  101,  102 
projector,  357 

pictures,  356 
Mule  farm  lessons,  390 

New  plants  for  farms,  393 
Newspaper  articles,  410 
Normal  student  training,  16,  18 
Notebook  keeping,  282 
Notebooks  for  trips,  81 
Novels,  agricultural,  365 
Noxious  weeds,  383 
Nursery  projects,  294 

Objective  tests,  70 
Observations,  agronomy,  105 

animal  husbandry,  129 

dairying,  146 

farm  management,  243 

horticulture,  201 

mechanical,  221 

poultry,  165 

project,  274 

soils,  266 
Opaque  projection  pictures,  355 

projectors,  329 
Orchard  exercises,  186-189 

layout,  199 

planting,  199,  200 

project  list,  294 

pruning,  180.  181 

renovation,  287 

studies,  190 

survey,  191,  192 

trips,  187-189 

work,  307 

Orchards,  starting,  392 
Orchestra,  school,  378 
Order  of  considering  crops,  75 

necessity  of,  32 
Organization  chapter,  7-25 

class,  15-17 


INDEX 


429 


Organization,  exercises,  24 

in  grades,  12 

in  high  schools,  12 

in  rural  schools,  11 

questions,  24 

references,  25 

Organizations,  cooperative,  40") 
Organizing  curriculum,  7-15 

institutes,  403 

library,  364 

Outlines  for   surveys,    80,   159,   192, 
214,  260 

projects,  273 

trips,  157 
Oxen  for  work,  236 

Pageant,  agricultural,  401 
Paper,  chart,  338 
Papers,  school,  411 
Perennials  to  plant,  382 
Periodicals  in  library,  366 

using,  366 

table,  367 
Physics  and  mechanics,  214 

in  soils,  261 
Picture  projector,  357 

taking,  351-354 
Pictures,  agriculture,  330 

agronomy,  100,  101 

chart,  346,  348 

moving,  356 

of  projects,  279 

projection,  355 

wall,  348 
Pig-club  boy,  285 
Pig  projects,  116,  117,  285 
Placards,  347,  348 
Plan  of  garden,  335 

work  shop,  209 
Planning  a  field  trip,  80 

farm  structures,  383 
Plans,  land  laboratory,  302 

of  projects,  272 

farm,  232 

writing,  272 
Plant  diseases,  383 

propagation,  172 
project,  286 

production  trip,  393 

supplies,  sources  of,  100 
Planters,  studying,  212 
Planting  trees,  200 
Plants  for  farms,  new,  393 
Plot  trials,  soils,  262 
Plots,  experimental,  254 
Plowing  skill,  89 


Post-mortem  studies,  IIP 
Posts  of  concrete,  221 
Potato  varieties,  399 
Potatoes,  study  of,  79 

treated,  380 
Poultry,  aims  in,  150 

bulletins,  167 

chapter,  150-168 

class  work,  153 

content  of  course,  150 

discoveries,  165 

equipment,  152 

exercise's,  167 

farm  lessons,  386 

feeds,  162 

figures,  345 

house  in  project,  152,  153 

in  rural  schools,  162 

in  town  grades,  163 

journals,  167 

laboratory  work,  155 

lesson,  164 

mechanics,  210 

methods  in,  150 

observations,  165 

projects,  158,  292 

questions,  168 

readings,  165 

records,  277 

references,  167 

review  work,  155 

short  courses,  164 

shows,  158 

surveys,  158,  159 

things  to  do,  166 
to  solve,  166 

trap  nesting,  160 

trials,  100,  161 

trips,  156,  157 
Power  equipment,  207 

on  farm,  211,  213,  218,  223 

work  with,  213 
Practice,  soils,  265 
Practices,  farm,  14 
Preparation  for  table  tops,  420 

of  teacher,  43 
Preset  ving  eggs,  161 
Press,  articles  for,  410 

illustrations  for,  409 

material  for,  408 

responsible  to,  29 

use  of,  407 

why  use,  407 

Prices  of  feed  and  labor,  275 
Printed  materials,  309 
Problem  method,  54 


430 


INDEX 


Problems,  community,  379 

mechanical,  223 

school  farm,  314 

soils,  264 

Productive  project,  270 
Products  standardized,  399 
Professional  attitude,  28 
Profit-sharing  labor,  313 
Program,  daily,  17-20 

in  high  school,  19 
Project  agreement,  271 

beef,  278 

blanks,  416 

book  forms,  273 

defined,  270 

exercises,  299 

features  of,  270 

greenhouse,  312 

hotbed,  179 

in  coldframe,  286 

junior,  284 

major  and  minor,  271 

observations,  274 

operations,  272 

outlines,  273 

pictures,  279 

plans,  272 

questions,  299 

record  forms,  277 

records,  274,  276 

score  card,  263 

summary,  274 

tomato,  179 

topics,  272 

citations,  273 

with  calves,  113 
turkeys,  151 

work,  absence  for,  298 
in  poultry,  152,  153 
soils,  257,  265,  266,  267 
Projects,  agronomy,  82-85 

and  management,  298 

and  school  studies,  297 

at  school,  158 

baby  beef,  114 

beautifying,  193,  194 

bee,  288,  289,  294 

beef,  291 

chapter,  270-300 

corn,  281 

cotton,  92 

crop,  274,  275,  287 

dairy,  282-284,  290 

farm  management,  295 

fruit,  13,  193 

garden,  193,  293 


Projects,  group,  270 

hog,  290 

horse,  291 

how  to  visit,  284 

improvement,  270 

individual,  270 

kinds  of,  270,  271 

landscape,  295 

livestock,  274,  276 

mechanics,  212,  297 

mechanics  in,  209-211 

nursery,  294 

orchard,  190,  287,  294 

pig,  116,  117,  285 

poultry,  292 

productive,  270 

relating  topics  to,  76 

scope  of,  271 

sheep,  291 

small  fruit,  293 

soils,  252,  289 

steps  in,  352-354 

trials,  270 

visited  by  students,  285 

visiting,  33,  280,  281 

women  in,  13 
Projection  pictures,  355 
Projector,  motion  picture,  329,  357 

opaque,  329 

Propagating  frame,  projection,  286 
Pruning,  heavy,  188 

orchard,  13 

practice,  180-182 

tools,  173 

trips,  391 

Psychology,  knowledge  of,  36 
Publications,  high  school,  411 
Pupils,  assigning,  15 

classification,  15 

Question  and  answer  method,  47 
Questioning,  47-50 
Questions,  agronomy,  107-108 

animal  husbandry,  133 

community,  413 

dairy,  149 

equipment,  331 

farm  management,  247 

horticulture,  204 

illustrative  material,  362 

land  laboratory,  315 

library,  374 

management,  34 

mechanical,  226 

methods,  70 

on  organization,  24 


INDEX 


431 


Questions,  project,  299 
soils,  269 

Readings,  animal  husbandry,  128 

dairy,  148 

farm  management,  244 

horticulture,  198 

mechanics,  219 

poultry,  165 

soils,  266 

Reasons  for  using  press,  407 
Records,  examining,  33,  280 

keeping,  276,  282 

milk  and  butter,  277 

of  income,  280 

of  operations,  274 

of  weights,  277 

poultry,  277 

uniformity,  275 

Rectangular  surfaces  on  charts,  342 
Recitation,  conduct  of,  61 

in  horticulture,  179 

teaching  portion  of,  62 

time  for,  8 
Reciting  topics,  47 
Reference  books,  105,  106 
References,  animal  husbandry,  131 

dairy,  148 

equipment,  331 

farm  management,  245 

horticulture,  199 

illustrative  material,  363 

land  laboratory,  316 

library,  375 

management,  35 

mechanics,  225,  227 

methods,  72,  73 

on  organization,  25 

poultry,  167 

soils,  267 
Relation  to  community,  28 

to  co-workers,  28 

to  supervisor,  28 
Reports,  analysis  of,  275,  276 
Residence  built  by  students,  219 
Responsibilitj'  of  teachers,  32 
Responsible  to  press,  29 
Review,  when  to,  68 

work,  114 
Reviews,  conducting,  67 

poultry,  155 

purposes  of,  66 
Revolving  slide  holder,  355 
Ridgeway  classification,  369 
Roads,  bad,  289 

condition  of,  230 


Roadside  market,  245 
Room,  social,  377 
Rooms,  agriculture,  317 

and  furniture,  317-328 

arrangement  of,  317 
Rope  work,  16,  208 
Rotation,  school,  11 
Rubber  type,  337 
Rural  leadership,  404 
Rural  school  grounds,  302 

horticulture,  195,  196 

organization,  11 

poultry,  162 

rotation  in,  11 

shop  work,  217 

soils  work,  262 

supervision,  14 
Rural  schools,  agronomy  in,  103 

animal  husbandry  in,  126 

dairying  in,  144 

farm  management  in,  239 

Sample,  illustrative,  99 
Samples  of  soil,  250 
Scab,  treating,  380 
Schedule,  17-20 

agriculture,  17 

high  school,  19 

necessity,  17 
School  a  community  center,  376 

cooperation,  394 

exhibits,  395 

farm  problems,  314 

garden,  174 

gardening,  195 

grades  (see  Grades) 

greenhouse,  176 

management  (see  Management ' 

models  of,  400 

orchestra,  378 

papers,  411 

shop,  320 

work  in  community,  385—112 
Sciences  and  animal  husbandry,  126 
Scions,  grafting,  381 
Scope  of  projects,  271 
Score  card,  explained,  21-23 
project,  283 

textbook,  20-124 
Scoring  dairy  cattle,  141 

textbooks,  20 
Screen  for  slidrs,  321 

picture,  3.50 

Seasonal  treatment  of  crops,  75 
Seed  analysis,  78 

corn  selection,  90 


432 


INDEX 


Seed  corn  to  test,  379 

selection,  92,  306 

testing,  379 

Seeding,  methods  of,  90 
Seeds,  drilling,  90 

to  clean,  380 

to  inoculate,  379 
Selecting  a  library,  304 
Selection  of  seed  corn,  90,  91,  94 

cotton,  92 

wheat,  92 
Self-feeder,  209 
Session  of  class,  45 
Sheep  associations,  418 

farm  lessons,  387 

project  mechanics,  210 

projects,  291 

studies  on  farms,  118-120 

work  with,  118-120 
Shop  discoveries,  220 

equipment,  206,  207 

erecting,  224 

farm.  360 

problems.  206 
Shop  room,  plan,  209,  320 
Shop  work  (see  also  Mechanics) 

chapter,  205-227 

community,  216 

in  grades,  218 

kinds,  211,  212,  220,  225 

rural  schools,  217 
Short  courses,  agricultural,  404 
agronomy,  104 
animal  husbandry,  127 
banquet,  18 
dairying,  145 
farm  management,  239 
horticulture,  197,  198 
mechanics,  219 
poultry,  164 
soils,  263 

Shows,  poultry,  158 
Silage  chart,  333 
Silo  work  of  students,  215 
Skeletons,  124 
Skill  defined,  64 

agriculture,  65 

disking,  90 

harvesting,  93 

hay  making,  93 

judging  projects,  94 

plowing,  89 

reviews,  67 
Skills,  agronomv,  89 

animal  husbandry,  130 

horticulture,  304 


Skills,  mechanical,  222 
Slide  holder,  355 

transparency,  355 
Slides,  borrowed,  329 

chapter,  332-363 

farm  management,  238 

horticulture,  192 

making,  354 

obtaining,  351 

pictures  for,  351 

soil,  261 

uses,  350 

Small  fruit  projects,  293 
Smith-Hughes  act,  1 
Smut,  treating,  380 
Social  room,  377 
Socratic  method,  56 
Soil,  baked,  255 

containers,  251 

laboratory  work,  253 

production  factors,  249 

slides,  261 

surveys,  260 

tests,  251 
Soils,  aim  in,  248 

and  other  subjects,  248,  261 

books,  267 

bulletins,  268 

chapter,  248-269 

charts,  260 

class  work,  251 

discoveries,  264 

discussions,  264 

equipment,  250 

erosion,  257,  258 

exercises,  256 

harrowing,  265 

in  grades,  263 

journals,  268 

judging,  258 

laboratory,  250 

lesson,  252 

observations,  266 

projects,  252,  257-259 

project  work,  265-267 

questions,  269 

readings,  266 

rural  schools,  262 

samples,  250 

short  courses,  263 

studying,  257,  258 

testing,  252 

things  to  do,  267 
to  solve,  264 

topics,  248 

to  test,  385 


INDEX 


433 


Soils,  trials,  202 

trips,  394 

Soldiers  in  agriculture,  4 
Specimens,  containers  for,  97 

typical,  330 

Spray  outfits,  using,  177 
Spraying  for  moth,  178 

lime-sulfur,  190 

trees,  307 

Stand,  chart.  339,  340 
Standardized  products,  399 
Steps,  formal,  38 

in  project,  279 

shown  in  picture,  352-354 
Stereographs,  356 
Stereoscope,  329 
Storage  of  materials,  95 

room,  322 

space,  319 

Store  house,  potato,  201 
Stories,  agricultural,  365 
Storing  illustrative  material,  360-362 
Stock  judging,  57 

time  for,  9 

Strawberries  to  plant,  382 
Student  chairs,  325 

labor,  313 

shop  work,  206-208 
Students  visit  projects,  285 
Studies  and  projects,  297 

at  farms,  81 
Study,  methods  of,  41 

supervised,  43 

teaching  how  to,  42 
Summary,  project,  274,  275 
Supervised  study,  43 

study  time,  8 
Supervision  of  teacher,  29 
Supervising  agriculture,  14 
Supervisor,  teacher  as,  30 

relation  to,  28 
Survey  cards,  122 

returns,  use  of,  87 

outlines,  86 
Surveys,  agronomy,  85,  86 

animal  husbandry,  121,  122 

dairy,  142 

lime,  260 

management,  237 

mechanics,  213 

orchard,  191 

poultry,  158,  159 

soil,  260 

summarizing,  87 

swine,  122 
Sweet  potato  storage,  201 

28 


Swine  associations,  418 
exercises  in,  119 
farm  lessons,  387 
project  mechanics,  210 
survey,  122 

Table,  laboratory,  324,  326 

tops,  finishing,  420 
Teacher  as  supervisor,  30 

field  of,  2 

needs  of.  2 

responsible,  32 

supervised,  29 

training  work,  29 

words  to,  34 

Teacher's  preparation,  43 
Teaching,  61 

agriculture,  managing,  26-35 

aided  by  management,  31 

how  to  study,  42 

in  recitation,  62 

methods  of,  36 

organizing,  7-25 
Terraces,  making,  257,  258 
Terracing  work,  393 
Test,  the,  62 
Testing,  61,  62 

and  measuring,  68 

cattle,  142 

milk,  140,  384 

seed,  379 

soils,  385 
Tests,  fertilizer,  251 

objective,  70 
Textbook,  choosing,  20 

method,  55 

score  card,  20-24 

scoring,  20 

the,  20-24 

Things  to  do  in  agronomy,  105 
Three  T's,  61 
Three-year  rotation,  11 
Tillage  trips,  394 
Tomato  project,  179 
Tools  for  shop,  206 
Topical  method,  46 
Topic  citations,  273 
Topics  for  alfalfa  project,  76 

for  commencement,  401 

from  projects,  272 

notes  on,  273 

reciting,  47 

related  to  project,  76 
Top-working  trees,  307 
Town  grades  (see  Grades) 
Tractor,  operation  of,  267 


434 


INDEX 


Tractor  vs.  six  horses,  236 
Tractors,  studying,  218 
Training,  61 

Training  class  in  high  school,  16 
Trap  nests,  159,  160 
Treating  for  scab,  380 

for  smut,  380 
Tree  planting,  200 
Trial  and  error,  56 

project,  270 
Trips,  beef  cattle,  389 

dniry,  386     » 

drainage,  393 

garden,  392 

horse  farm,  389,  390 

horticulture,  187-189 

landscape,  392 

mechanics,  215,  216,  394 

orchard  pruning,  391 

poultry,  156,  157,  386 

sheep,  387,  388 

soil,  394 

spraying,  391 

swine,  387 

terracing,  393 

tillage,  394 

to  study  diseases,  390 
Tuberculosis,  testing  for,  142 
Turkey  project,  151 
Type,  rubber,  337 

Uniformity  in  records,  275 


Upkeep,  land  laboratory,  303 
Use  of  the  book,  5 
Uses  of  land,  303-311 

general,  303 

specific,  306 

Vegetable  projects,  293 
Ventilation,  building,  384 
Views,  stereoscopic,  193 
Visit  projects,  how  to,  284 
Visiting  projects,  33,  280 
troubles  in,  289 
Visual  instruction,  332 

chapter,  332-363 
exercises,  362 
questions,  362 
references,  363 
Vocational  education  law,  1 
Vocational  market,  245 

Water-pressure  system,  211 
Water  system,  chart,  361 
Weeds  of  region,  383 
Wheat  selection,  92 
Women  in  projects,  13 
Work  in  agronomy,  76 
Working  in  orchard,  307 
Work  shop,  plan,  209 
Written  examinations,  60 

instructions,  283 

lesson,  60 


A     001  085  219    2 


UNiVKR'-rr 


ORNIA 


L'J.  ^L.L. 

LlbkAKY 


